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SHORTER COURSE 



IN 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



BY 



SIMON KEEL, A.M., 



AUTHOR OF "A COMPREHENSIVE GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH IiANGUAGE," 
4 * COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC," ETC. 



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NEW YORK : 
IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR, & COMPANY, 

138 & 140 Grand Street. 
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TEuh 

Kerl's Series of School-Books. 



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for those schools in which two English grammars — a lower 
and a higher — are to be used. 

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sequel to the " First Lessons." 

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for those schools in which only one English grammar is to 
be used. 

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ers, high-schools, and colleges. It is an excellent work for 
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tical and most valuable work, on a new plan. It is well to 
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great variety of progressive exercises. 

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870, by 

SIMON KERL, 
In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



boston : 
electrotyped and printed by rand, avery, & frye. 



PKEFACE. 



This book is designed as a revised edition of the author's Elemen- 
tary Grammar, which was first published about nine years ago, and 
which has had a steady sale ever since. The present volume also aims 
to be more nearly just such a manual as the great majority of public 
schools throughout our country now require. Great care has been 
taken, and no inconsiderable expense has been incurred, to ascertain 
the views of the ablest teachers, and to modify the work accordingly, 
especially in its quantity of matter. The book is still, however, an 
original production ; and the author alone is responsible for the plan 
and its execution. 

For many years, the denunciation of grammars and their authors 
has been a standing theme in most of the gatherings of teachers. All 
the sound objections that have been made against grammar, the author 
has diligently sought and carefully considered. He has also tried to 
ascertain into what channel the schools of our country are gradually 
drifting in consequence of the impediments and obstructions caused 
by objections and difficulties. The great diversity of opinion, on the 
subject in general, is certainly something to amuse, if not dishearten, 
the man who undertakes to make a new grammar. What one teacher 
approves, another condemns; and what proves a failure with one, is a 
success with another. Some teachers are altogether for simplification ; 
some, for condensation ; and some, for nothing at all. 

While such a state of things exists, the maker of a new grammar 
can hardly be blamed for boldly undertaking to devise a new system ; 
and the present treatise is therefore a re-organization of the matter be- 
longing to the general subject, — a book different from any thing of 
the 7 kind that has yet been published. The author has carefully avoided 
mere oddity, for innovation is not necessarily improvement ; and he has 
bestowed much thought on the entire subject, in order to reach a more 
natural, more simple, and more practical system. 

In the majority of our best schools, the study of grammar has been 
gradually fashioned into a preliminary oral course, followed by a course 

3 



4 PREFACE, 

of text : this book has been made to correspond to this better method of 
teaching. A great difficulty, in the study of grammar, lies in the 
long stretches between what is learned and its practical application or 
beauty ; and another chief difficulty is the abstract nature of the sub- 
ject. Syntax produces most of the so-called etymology of the parts 
of speech. Why, then, separate these two parts" of grammar 1 and 
why place the result before the cause'? Do not the parts of speech 
themselves, and most of their variations, depend directly on the rela- 
tions of words in sentences ? Punctuation is but the finish to syntax, 
and versification is but metrical syntax. Illustrations and exercises are 
the natural and acceptable food of the young mind, and the proper re- 
lief to the essence of abstractions. Show a child the essence of roses 
in an apothecary's bottle, and he will hardly know it ; but take him to the 
bush on which the roses bloom, and he will be delighted. In considera- 
tion of all these things, and of the favor with which the author's former 
views in the same direction have been received, he now ventures to 
offer the public a small manual in which the classification is exceeding- 
ly compact, in which all that belongs to the same topic is carefully 
grouped together, and in which every important subject has received 
the true, the best simplification, — that of illustrations and exercises, 
of the most beautiful, pithy, and practical kind. Sometimes the ex- 
ercises—as on pp. 61-64, 87-94, 98-103, 124-126 — may seem rather 
too numerous ; but let them be tried before they are condemned ; and 
let it be remembered, that, in the long time children are kept in gram- 
mar, they can do something, and must have something to do. Occa- 
sionally, it may seem that too many forms are given, as on p. 92 ; but 
the forms are often more useful than the general meaning ; for persons 
may be at a loss for them, without feeling any doubt about the mean- 
ing. Besides, where there is no time for such exercises, they can be 
easily omitted. 

There is not room here to say more in explanation : competent 
judges can easily find the wherefore of whatever is given or omitted. 
Suffice it to say, in conclusion, that this book has been written with 
particular reference to the school-room ; and the author hopes that the 
book will rather there, than anywhere else, vindicate and recommend 
itself. 



INDEX. 



A and An, pages 121 and 133. 

Abbreviation, p. 72. 

Accent, of words, 67 ; of verse, 
225. 

Adjectives, 35; classes of, 122; 
derivation of, 124; irregular, 
126; relations of, 127; punctua- 
tion of, 128 ; phrases used as ad- 
jectives, 129; clauses used as 
adjectives, 130; analysis of, 131 ; 
parsing, 131 ; false syntax, 135. 

Adjuncts and Adnouns, 105. 

Adverbs, 41 ; meaning and class- 
es, 180; conjunctive, 181 ; com- 
parison, 181; syntax, 182; 
punctuation, 182 ; derivation, 
190; phrases used adverbially, 
192; clauses used adverbially, 
193; analysis and parsing, 194 ; 
false syntax, 200. 

Agreement, 95. 

Analysis, 44, 104; of nouns and 
pronouns, 105 ; of adjectives, 
131 ; of verbs, 165 ; of adverbs, 
182; of phrases and clauses, 
102, 129, 130, 183, 192, 193, 197. 

Antecedent, 79, 234. 

Antithesis, 219. 

Apostrophe, 72, 86, 221. 

Apposition, 90, 96, 232. 

Arrangement of Words, 15, 217- 
219. 

Articles, 18, 121, 133. 

Auxiliary Verbs, 139, 153, 174. 

Blackboard Exercises, 27. 

Brackets, 98. 

Capital Letters, rules for, 60-63. 
Cases, 34, 85. 



Clauses, 13, 37 ; used as nouns, 
lu2 ; modal nature of, 104 ; used 
as adjectives, 130 ; used as ad- 
verbs, 193. 

Climax, 219. 

Colon, 97/ 101, 103, 230. 

Comma, 97-103, 229. 

Comparison, degrees of, 36, 123. 

Compound Words, 69. 

Conjugation, 154; how formed, 
155. 

Conjunctions, 51 ; meaning and 
classes, 186; svntax, 187; list, 
187. 

Contraction, 72. 

Correlatives, 188. 

Dash, 98, 101, 228. 

Declension, 86. 

Derivation, 75 ; of nouns, 87 ; of 

adjectives, 124; of verbs, 159; 

of adverbs, 190. 

Elements, 104. 

Ellipsis, 216. 

Enallasre, 218. 

Equivalent Expressions, 222- 

225. 
Etymology, 57, 73. 
Euphemism, 76. 
Exclamation, 220. 
Exclamation-Point, 97, 228. 
Exercises, 61, 87, 124, 159, 195. 

False Syntax, 110, 133, 170, 200. 
Figures, 75, 216. 

Genders, 32, 82. 
Government, 95. 
Grammar, 57. 



INDEX. 



Hyperbole, 76. 
Hyphen, 69-70. 

Idioms, 230-237. 
Independent Element, 78. 
Infinitives, 200; meaning, 164; 

syntax, 164, 165; punctuation, 

166; parsing, 166-168. 
Interjections, 19, 189. 
Interrogation, 219. 
Interrogation-Point, 97, 228. 
Inversion, 217. 
Irony, 76. 

Irregular Verbs, 139, 141. 
Italics, 65. 

Language, 57. 

Letters, 13, 58-66. 

Metaphor, 75. 

Metonymy, 76. 

Modifications of Syntax, 216. 

Modifiers, denned, 104, 105; ad- 
jective, 105; adverbial, 121, 165, 
182. 

Moods, 39, 146. 

Nouns, 17, 31, 79; classes, 79 ; 
properties, 82 ; irregular in num- 
ber, 84 ; derivation, 87 ; exer- 
cises, 87-94 ; syntax, 95 ; punc- 
tuation, 98-151; analysis, 105; 
parsing, 106; false syntax, 110- 
121. 

Numbers, 33 ; of nouns and pro- 
nouns, 84, 93, 94 ; of adjectives, 
122, 128 ; of verbs, 151 ; Obser- 
vations, 111, 133, 173, 200. 

Oral Elements, 58. 
Orthography, 57-74. 

Paragraph, 98. 

Parsing, defined, 104 ; of nouns 
and pronouns, 106 ; of articles 
and adjectives, 131 ; of verbs, 
214 ; of adverbs, prepositions, 
conjunctions, and interjections, 
194; general remarks, 230; dif- 
ficult constructions, 230-285. 

Participles, defined and classified, 
151-153; meaning and syntax, 
164-166; punctuation, 166; pars- 
ing, 166-168. 



Parts of Speech, 16, 79. 

Pauses, 97 ; poetic, 226. 

Period, 72, 97. 

Persons, 33 ; of nouns and pro- 
nouns, 83; of verbs, 151, 163. 

Personification, 76. 

Phrases, 13, 36 ; used as nouns, 
102; used as adjectives, 129; 
used as adverbs, 192; idiomatic, 
230. 

Pleonasm, 216. 

Poetic Peet, 225. 

Poetic Licenses, 226. 

Predicates, 9, 46, 105. 

Prefixes, 73. 

Prepositions, 19, 129, 183 ; list of, 
184 ; punctuation of preposition- 
al phrases, 184. 

Pronouns, 17, 31 ; defined and 
classified, 79; parsing, 106-108; 
syntax of, 143, 144, 167-169. 

Pronunciation, 57-72. 

Properties of Nouns and Pro- 
nouns, 82. 

Properties of Verbs, 145. 

Punctuation, 97, 228. 

Quotation-Marks, 65, 98, 228. 

Relations, 23, 94, 127, 162, 181. 
Rhyme, 226. 
Roots of Words, 73. 
Rules of Syntax, 95, 127, 165, 182 ; 
summary of, 238. 

Scanning, 228. 

Semicolon, 97, 101, 229. 

Sentence, defined, 9, 13 ; senten- 
ces, classified according to mean- 
ing and form, 12, 104 ; sentence- 
making, 43; simple and com- 
posite, 152; simple, complex, 
and compound, 222, 223; how 
contracted, 224. 

Simile, 219. 

Spelling, 70 ; rules of, 71. 

Styles, and forms of the tenses, 
40, 150. 

Subjects, 9, 44, 105. 

Suffixes, 73. 

Syllables, 13, 66-68. 

Synecdoche, 76. 

Synopsis, 77, 78; of verb, 154. 



INDEX. 



Syntax, defined, 79 ; of nouns and 
pronouns, 95 ; of articles and 
adjectives, 127; of verbs, 166: 
of adverbs, prepositions, con- 
junctions, and interjections, 182- 
189; modifications of, 216; dif- 
ficult constructions, 230-237 ; 
summary of rules of, 238. 

Tenses, 40, 147; exceptions and 
secondary uses, 148 ; some of the 
most common errors, 177. 

Verbs, 18, 38, \38 ; principal parts 

of, 138; classes of, 139; list of 

irregular, 141; defective, 145; 

properties of verbs, 145 ; voices, 

"145; moods, 146; tenses, 147; 



styles and forms, 1 50 ; person 
and number, 151 ; participles 
and infinitives, 151 ; conjugation 
and synopsis, 154; conjugation 
of the verb be, 158; derivation 
of .verbs, 159; exercises on 
verbs, 159-162; general syntax 
of verbs, 162-166 ; parsing, 166- 
168; false syntax, 170-179. 

Verse, 225. 

Versification, 225. 

Vision, 220. 

Voices, 39, 145. 

Words, 13; elements and form of, 
57-66; classification of, 66, 67; 
form and spelling of, 69-72 ; 
meanings of, 73-76. 



SYNOPSIS. 



ORAL COURSE. 

Analysis, synthesis, and criticisms, with the simplest and most 
practical introduction to composition. First, the two chief parts 
of discourse or sentences, — subject and predicate ; then the sen- 
tence, and the larger parts of sentences. Next, the analysis of 
sentences according to their words ; or, the parts of speech. Syn- 
thesis of subject ; synthesis of predicate ; synthesis of sentences. 
Correction of the most common errors. Short Letters. 

TEXT COURSE. 

Words. 

The General Grammar of Words. — The oral elements 

and their signs. Words in regard to form: letters, syllables, 

spelling. Words in regard to meaning : prefixes, suffixes, roots. 

Laws of transition in the meanings of words. 

For prefixes, suffixes, roots, and synonyms, see KerPs " Shorter Course, with 
Etymology." 

Sentences. 

Syntax, and its Elements. — The grammar of nouns and 
pronouns, with illustrations and exercises. The grammar of arti- 
cles and adjectives, with illustrations and exercises. The gram- 
mar of verbs, with illustrations and exercises. The grammar of 
adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections, with illustra- 
tions and exercises. General exercises on sentences, and all the 
parts of speech ; or, a poem to be analyzed and parsed. General 
exercises in false syntax. The various modifications of syntax, 
chiefly for rhetorical effect. Idioms. 



Remarks. — | denotes separation. = connects equivalent expressions. 

W means wrong: sentences beginning with this letter are to be corrected. 

The few technical or difficult words which we have been obliged to use, the 
teacher should explain ; or she should give out a number of them to the pupils 
from time to time, and require them to iearn the meanings in some large dic- 
tionary. 

8 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



OEAL COUESE. 



SECTION I. 

We have thoughts. 

We express our thoughts by means of words. 

Every saying or statement implies at least two 
things, — something of which we speak, and some- 
thing that we say of it. 

Subject. The word or expression denoting that of 
which something is said is called the subject. 

Predicate. The word or expression denoting what 
is said of the subject is called the predicate. 

The word subject is also frequently applied to the person or thing spoken of. 

Sentence. A sentence is a combination of words 
making complete sense. A sentence is a 'thought ex- 
pressed in words. 

Words must be combined, and in certain ways, to express thoughts. 
The words the, glides, waves, in, over, wind, meadow, the, separately and 
singly, can not express a thought ; and when combined thus, waves the 
in glides wind meadow the over, they do not express a thought ; but when 
combined thus, " The wind glides in waves over the meadow," they ex- 
press a beautiful thought. The wind is the subject, because it denotes 
that of which something is said ; glides in waves over the meadow is the 
predicate, because it denotes what is said of the wind ; and the entire 
expression is a sentence, because it is a combination of words making 
complete sense, or because it is a thought expressed in words. 



10 ORAL COURSE. 

" The argument most apt and ample 

For common use is the example. " — T. Moore. 

Say that the expression is a sentence, and tell why ; mention the subject, 
and why ; mention the predicate, and why : — 

John | studies. Fire | burns. Snow is falling. Mary 
is writing. Birds sing. Children play. Winds How. 
Bivers flow. He sleeps. Blood is red. Thieves are sly. 
The sun shines. The dog barks. Life passes away rap- 
idly. Corn is ground. The ocean is deep. Gold is a 
metal. Gold is yellow. Gold shines. Gold is coined. 
Ice is frozen water. Snow protects plants. Wolves howl. 
All dogs bite the bitten dog. Our skiff floats. The dew 
has refreshed the flowers. John caught a fish. The fish 
was caught by John. The horse was young. The horse 
ran away. The horse was caught with a lasso. 

tt^" The subject answers to the question Who ? or What ? and the 
predicate to Is what ? Does what ? or Has what done to it f Let the teacher 
a^ain conduct her class through the foregoing sentences, according to these 
distinctions, and with such variations in the questions as good sense and 
syntax require. — See last page of Preface. 

Supply suitable subjects to the following predicates, so as to make complete 
sentences : — 

Have recited our lesson; has recited his lesson; have 
recited their lesson ; squeal ; plays ; play ; is made from 
apples ; warms us ; is plowing his field ; are sold in the 
market; grow in the woods; climbs trees; live in water. 

Supply suitable predicates : — 

The frost; ice; our neighbor; the hunter; my father 
and mother ; bread, meat, and vegetables ; corn ; the Mis- 
sissippi ; New York ; a flock of blackbirds ; pinks, lilies, 
and roses. 

Make sentences from the following words : — 



Boy, cow, sun, horse, 
lion, ship, tree, cat, knife, 
glass, fe bird,* wolf, 'eye, * ear, \ 
hand, . rose, ' dog, • frog, 
snake. « , 

Example. — The boy plays. (Begin every sentence with a capital letter, 
and end it with a full stop.) 



r Low, play, break, cut, need, 
grow, sail, howl, neigh, fly, 
shine, creep, smell, hold, 
hear, see, jump,- roar, bark. 



INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR, 11 



SECTION II. 

The subject may be either simple or compound. 
The predicate may be either simple or compound. 

An assertion can be made of one person, thing, or group, or of two 
or more distinct persons, or kinds of things ; and to the same subject 
can be referred either one assertion or two or more distinct assertions. 
In the sentence, " The boy | is going to school," the subject and the 
predicate are simple; in the sentence, "The boy and his. sister | are 
going to school," the subject is compound ; and in the sentence, " The 
boy | studies and plays," the predicate is compound. 

For simple subjects and predicates, see the exercises in the last Section. 

Mention the subjects and the predicates, and tell whether simple or com- 
pound : — 

John and James study. John reads and writes. Winds 
and storms are but currents of air. He lighted his lamp, 
sat down by the table, but soon slept with all his might. 
Beauty is a blossom. t Time and distance tame the strongest 
grief. Books, music, and gardening are his delight. After 
clouds comes fair weather. Apples, peaches, plums, and 
melons grow in most parts of our country. I must either 
sell or borrow. The lark soars and sings. 

0^=* Now let the pupils make from each of the foregoing sentences as 
many single statements as possible. 

Contract the following sentences, by omitting repeated or unnecessary 
words : — 

The dog barks, and the dog bites. (The dog barks and 
bites.) The child laughs, and the child talks. The horse- 
chestnut is beautiful, but it is not useful. The elephant 
lias a short neck, and the elephant has a long trunk. Yes- 
terday I saw your cousin, but I did not see your brother. 
You should love your brothers, and you should love your 
sisters. If you wish to succeed, work with cheerfulness, 
and work with perseverance. He writes quickly, and there- 
fore he writes carelessly. Caesar was a great general, and 
Hannibal was a great general. Monkeys abound in the 



12 OBAL COURSE. 

forests of Africa, parrots abound in the forests of Africa, 
and serpents abound in the forests of Africa. In warm 
climates, oranges blossom all the year, and oranges ripen all 
the year. 

SECTION III. 

We know, doubt, or wish. 
Hence we can declare, ash, or request. 
And sentences are accordingly either declarative, 
interrogative, or imperative. 

Declarative. Interrogative. Imperative. 

The soldier rests. Does the soldier rest ? Soldier, rest. 

John goes to school. Does John go to school ? John, go to school. 

She went home. Did she go home ? Go home. 

A declarative sentence is an assertion. 

An interrogative sentence is a question. 

An imperative sentence is a command or request. 

When we speak or write to a person, we usually do so either to tell him 
something, to ask him something, or to bid him do something. 

Tell whether declarative, interrogative, or imperative, and why : — 
He is honest. Is he honest? Be honest. The sum- 
mits of the Rocky Mountains are covered with snow. Take 
away these hooks. Why are we here idle ? Go to the 
ant, thou sluggard ! The wind is never weary. Is it rain- 
ing ? Work, hoys, work. Wolves were once common in 
every part of this country. Were you in time for the 
train ? The lone sheep is in danger of wolves. Wake not 
a sleeping lion. Wars "bring scars. Weeds do not need 
sowing or culture. Do not count chickens before they are 
hatched. Is dinner ready ? A bird in the hand is worth 
two in the hush. Are you hurt ? Time devours all things. 
What comes from the heart, goes to the heart. Do not say, 

Go ; hut go thyself. 

CCF=" Now let the pupils, so far as convenient, change each of the fore- 
going sentences into the other kinds; and they may also be required to 
change affirmative sentences into negative, and negative into affirmative. 



INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 13 

SECTION IV. 

A tetter is a character that denotes one or more of 
the elementary sounds of language. 

A Syllable is a letter, or a union of letters, pro- 
nounced as one unbroken sound. 

A Word is a syllable, or a union of syllables, used 
as the sign of an idea. 

Letters make syllables, syllables make words, words make sentences, and 
sentences express thoughts. Letters denote sounds ; words, ideas ; and senten- 
ces, thoughts. — The teacher should explain what needs explanation. 

A Proposition is a subject combined with its predi- 
cate. The simpler word statement may also be used. 

A Phrase is two or more words rightly put together, 
but not making a proposition. 

A Sentence is a thought expressed by a proposition, 
or a union of propositions, followed by a full pause. 

For a more simple but less exact definition of a sentence, see page 9. 

A Clause is a proposition that makes but a part of a 
sentence. 

The expression, " I will come," is a proposition, or statement, of 
which lis the subject, and will come is the predicate. It is also a sen- 
tence, when it expresses the complete thought of the speaker. " I will 
come when he sends for me," is a sentence consisting of two proposi- 
tions, / will come and when he sends for me. Sends for me is a phrase ; 
the words are properly put together, but do not make a proposition. 

Tell whether a phrase or a sentence, and why ; change phrases into sen- 
tences ; resolve composite sentences into their clauses ; resolve sentences or 
clauses into subjects and predicates, and define these parts : — 

A clear and beautiful stream ran along the Muffs. Un- 
der a shady maple. Her eyes were blue like blossoming 
flax. The diamond is the most precious gem. Blown 
down by the wind. Palm-trees grow in Asia, Africa, and 
South America. Some boys and girls are very careless. 
To study diligently. The thunder burst in tremendous 
explosions. The peals were echoed from mountain to 



14 ORAL COURSE. 

mountain. The storm seemed to have brought all the artil- 
lery of heaven into action. Williams the barber. When 
I had recited Sny lessons. Literature is a garden, books 
are particular views of it, and readers are visitors. How 
soon are we forgotten when we are gone ! Set a frog on a 
golden chair, and he will leap back into his dirty pool. 
Springs flow from natural reservoirs under ground. Lakes 
are supplied with water by rivers, brooks, or springs. He 
that has ill luck, gets ill usage. Eagles do not catch flies. 
Men, like pillars, are strong only while they are upright. 
The purest water comes from hardest rock. 

Make sentences, and embody in them the following phrases : — 
Under the snow. Decked with flowers. To study more diligently. 

By the brook. Planted in rows. To see the sun rise. 

In the deepest pool. Glowing with heat. To spend the day. 
Over field and forest. Having nothing to do. To play with his dog. 

Change each set of the following statements into one sentence : — 

1. The tree was struck. It was an oak-tree. The tree was old. 
It was a fine tree. It grew in the Park. The lightning struck it. 
It was night when it was struck. The night was Thursday night. 
It was twelve o'clock when it was struck. 

How much more briefly and elegantly is all this information ex- 
pressed in one sentence ! The fine old oak-tree in the Park was struck by 
lightning at 12 o'clock on Thursday night. 

2. Banks were overflowed. They were the banks of the Mis- 
sissippi. This was on the 15th of last June. 

3. A boy came. He was pretty. He was little. He was blue- 
eyed. He had rosy cheeks. He came with a young white rabbit. 
He had it in his pinafore. He brought it to his mother. 

4. The girl wrote a letter. She was a good girl. She wrote it 
to her mother. It was a long letter. She wrote it on her mother's 
birthday. She wrote in the morning. 

5. Elizabeth harangued her troops. Elizabeth was a queen. 
She harangued them with much spirit. It was at Tilbury Fort. 
It was before the Spanish Armada arrived. It was only a little 
time before. 

Change each of the following sentences into as many statements as possi- 
ble:— * 



INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 15 

1. After a great defeat in one of the wars between the houses 
of York and Lancaster, Queen Margaret, the wife of Henry the 
Sixth, fled with her son into a deep forest. 

Ex. — Queen Margaret fled. She was the wife of Henry the Sixth. 
She fled after a great defeat. It was a defeat in one of the wars between 
the houses of York and Lancaster. She fled with her son. She fled 
into a forest. 

2. The wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad for them ; 
and the desert shall rejoice and blossom as the rose. 

3. Amid the shades of a venerable wood, which clothed the 
sides of a lofty mountain, there lived an aged hermit, remarkable 
for his wisdom and benevolence. 

4. Music, when the performers are concealed, affects us with a 
pleasure mingled with surprise, and reminds us of the natural 
concerts of birds among the leafy bowers. 

Vary the following sentences by changing the arrangement of the parts : — 

1. On the fifth day of the month, | which I always keep holy, | 
I ascended the high hills of Bagdad, | in order to pass the rest of 
the day in meditation and prayer. 

Ex. — In order to pass the rest of the day in meditation and prayer, 
I ascended the high hills of Bagdad, on the fifth day of the month, 
which I always keep holy. (Change in several other ways, if possible.) 

2. He hastened to the palace, overwhelmed with anguish, and 
cast himself at the feet of the Emperor. 

3. The dry leaves rustled on the ground ; and the winds, whis- 
tling by me, gave a foretaste of the gloomy desolation of winter. 

4. If you lie upon roses when young, you may have to lie upon 
thorns when old. 

5. Fortune knocks once, at least, at every man's gate. 

6. Early one summer morning, before the family was stirring, 
an old clock, that, without giving its owner any cause of com- 
plaint, had stood for fifty years in a farmer's kitchen, suddenly 
stopped. 

7. Beneath those rugged elms, that yew-tree's shade, 

Where heaves the turf in many a moldering heap, 
Each in his narrow cell for ever laid, 

The rude forefathers ol the hamlet sleep. 

If the pupils have been well drilled according to the general tenor of all the 
foregoing exercises, they have probably acquired a tolerable knowledge of the 
larger parts of language, with their joints and mobility, and are now prepared for 
a more minute analysis. 



16 ORAL COURSE. 

SECTION V. 

Though language consists of a large number of 
words, yet they can all be reduced to a small number 
of classes, which are called the Parts of Speech. 

1. Words that are the Names of objects, and are usually called NOUNS* 
Ex. — " In spring, the sun shines pleasantly upon the earth, leaves 

and flowers come forth, and birds sing among the trees." 

2. Words that stand for Nouns, and are called PHONO VNS. 

" Roses encircle my window, and they adorn it." 

the roses the window. 

3. Words that particularly help Nouns, and are called ARTICLES. 
" The church stands on a hill." " Give him an apple." 

4. Words that describe or specify objects, and are called ADJECTIVES. 
" Ripe strawberries are good" " That man owns two farms." 

5. Words that signify to do, to be, or to suffer, and express assertions, — 
called VERBS. 

" Men work." " Plants live." " Bad boys are punished." 

6. Words that express manner, time, place, or degree, usually in connection 
with Verbs, and therefore called ADVERBS. 

" Speak distinctly." " Remain here." " Go now." " Run faster." 

7. Words placed before Nouns to make with them descriptive phrases, and 
called PREPOSITIONS. r^j ? , 

"There are cedars on the hill beyond the river." (Where? What 

8. Words that connect other words, and are called CONJUNCTIONS. 
" John and James are happy, because they are good." 

9. Words abruptly uttered to express feeling, and called INTERJEC- 
TIONS ; as, " But, oh ! how changed ! " Hence, — 

There are nine Parts of Speech ; Nouns, Pronouns, 
Articles, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Con- 
junctions, and Interjections. 

A Noun is a name. 

A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 

An Article is the word the, a, or an, placed before 
a noun to limit its meaning. 

An Adjective is a word used to qualify or limit the 
meaning of a noun or pronoun. 

A Verb is a word used to express the act or state of 
a subject. 



INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 17 

An Adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of 
a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 

A Preposition is a word used to show the relation 
of a noun or pronoun to some other word. 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, 
phrases, clauses, or sentences. 

An Interjection is an independent word, used 
abruptly to express emotion. 

Familiar Explanation. — I might present to your mind, by words 
alone, all that I have ever seen or experienced. To do this, I should 
have to use nouns and pronouns, to denote objects ; adjectives, to describe 
or specify objects, or to express their qualities, conditions, or circum- 
stances ; verbs, to express their actions, or states of existence ; adverbs, 
to describe or locate their actions, or to show the nature and degree of 
their qualities ; prepositions, to express their positions or relations to one 
another ; conjunctions, to continue the discourse, or connect its parts ; 
and interjections, to give vent to any feeling or emotion springing up sud- 
denly within me. 

Nouns* — When we look around us, we can hardly avoid noticing 
objects, and sometimes we see a great number and variety. Such words 
as John, Mary, tree, house, street, man, horse, rock, apple, flower, rose, chair , 
desk, book, slate, stove, wall, sky, sun, moon, stars, day, night, music, fra- 
grance, roughness, pride, sorrow, trouble, are all of them nouns, because 
they are the names of objects, or of persons and things. Noun means 
name; and an object is whatever we can see, hear, taste, feel, smell, or 
else think of as being something. If I say, " Lions, giraffes, ostriches, 
baboons, and elephants are found in Africa," lions, giraffes, ostriches, 
elephants, baboons, and Africa are nouns. If I say, " Pinks, violets, 
lilies, and honeysuckles are blooming in our garden," pinks, violets, lilies, 
honeysuckles, and garden are nouns. And if I say, " The desire of hap- 
piness is inherent in the soul," desire, happiness, and soul are also nouns. 

Pronouns. — Pro-noun means for a noun ; and pronouns are so called 
because they are used for nouns, or in stead of nouns. Such words as 
he, she, they, them, it, you, I, we, who, which, me, us, what, yours, himself, 
themselves, are pronouns, because in speaking we often use them in place' 
of the names of the persons or things that we think or speak of. If I 
say, " I see you," /represents the speaker, but it is not his name; and 
you represents the person spoken to, without being his name. If I say, 
" William promised Mary that William would lend Mary William's 
grammar, that Mary might study the grammar" you can easily see that 
2 



18 ORAL COURSE. 

the sentence is clumsy and disagreeable, because I have so often repeated 
the words William, Mary, and grammar. But if I say, " William 
promised Mary that he would lend her his grammar that she might study 
it," you notice that the sentence is much more simple and agreeable, 
because I have used the little words he, she, and it, for the nouns William, 
Mary, and grammar, in stead of repeating these nouns. It is therefore 
evident that it was desirable, in the formation of language, to make a 
small group of short words that could be used in stead of nouns, to pre- 
vent the frequent and disagreeable repetition of nouns ; and this group 
of small words are the pronouns. Nouns and pronouns are sometimes 
called substantives. 

Articles. — Article means joint. The name is derived from the 
Greeks, who used such expressions as " the man the," just as we some- 
times hear " that man that" A noun thus situated is not unlike the 
part of a limb between two joints. If I say, " Give me a book," you 
understand that any book will answer my purpose ; but if I say, " Give 
me the book," you understand that I want some particular book. If I 
say, " Missouri is north of Arkansas," I mean States ; but if I say, 
" The Missouri is north of the Arkansas," I mean rivers. These little 
words, a and the, which are called articles, are more intimately con- 
nected with nouns than any other specifying words are ; indeed, so much 
so, that they may be considered a sort of pilots for nouns. 

Adjectives. — Ad' -jective means throwing to, adding to, or joining to. 
Adjectives are so called because they are words that generally serve to 
modify our idea of an object by joining to the idea that of some quality, 
or by making a distinction. Such words as white, black, sweet, sour, good, 
bad, large, small, swift, slow, hard, soft, muddy, dusty, young, old, deep, high, 
wild, and gentle are adjectives, because they are not the names of objects, 
but serve to describe objects. And such words as this, that, those, yonder, 
some, many, few, two, second, third, each, and every are called adjectives, 
because they serve to show what objects or how many are meant. If I 
say, " A good pupil will be industrious," good and industrious are adjec- 
tives, because they describe the pupil. And in the sentence, " This tree 
bore Jive bushels of apples," this is an adjective, because it makes the 
indefinite word tree mean a particular one ; and Jive is an adjective, be- 
cause it makes the word bushels mean a particular number. 

Verbs. — Verb means word. Verbs are called so by pre-eminence ; 
because they are the chief words in language or in grammars, or because 
all objects except God must have been produced by some kind of activity. 
Such words as walk, run, leap, swim, study, work, create, fly, read, talk, 
sing, cook, eat, Jail, flow, blow, and break are called verbs, because they 
tell what persons or things do, or they are used to express assertions ; 
as, "The child walks;" "The horses run;" "Frogs leap;" "Ducks 



INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 19 

swim; " " Alice reads ; " " Birds fly ; " " Most people work daily. " If 
I say, " The tree is green/' is is used to assert a state of the tree ; if I 
say, " The tree waves," waves tells what the tree does ; and if I say, 
u The tree was killed," was Jellied tells what is done to the tree. Such 
words are verbs. 

Adverbs. — Ad-verb means to a verb. Adverbs are so called because 
they are most frequently added or joined to verbs. They are generally 
used to express manner, place, tune, or degree, with reference to some act 
or state. " The water flows rapidly ; " rapidly is an adverb, because it 
tells how the water flows. " It rained here then ; " here is an adverb 
because it tells where it rained, and then is an adverb because it tells 
when it rained. " The water is very deep ; " very is an adverb, because 
it tells how deep the water is. " The water flows very rapidly ; " very 
is an adverb, because it tells how rapidly the water flows. If I say, 
" He reasons correctly, speaks fluently, and persuades earnestly ; " " "Walk 
up, walk down, walk in ; " " Exceedingly tall, horribly ugly, surprisingly 
abrupt, more ingenious, most eloquent, very powerfully, quite fast ;" you 
see that all of these Italicized words tell how, where, when, or in what 
degree ; and they are therefore adverbs. 

Prepositions. — Preposition is derived from pre, before, and positio, 
placing ; the word therefore means placing before, or something placed 
before. Prepositions are placed before nouns or pronouns to make with 
them descriptive phrases. Such words as on, in, to, from, before, behind, 
through, round, above, under, between, and of, which show the position or 
relation of things to one another, are called prepositions. " A school is 
kept in the house on the hill ; " <( in the house " is a specifying phrase, 
showing where the school is kept, and in shows the relation between is 
kept and house ; " on the hill " is a descriptive phrase, showing what or 
which house it is, and on shows the relation between house and hill. 

Conjunctions. — Con-junction is derived from con, together, and 
junctio, joining ; and it therefore means joining together, or something 
that joins together. Such words as and, or, but, than, because, for, if, and 
though are called conjunctions, because they serve to connect the parts of 
discourse. " Silks and jewels are showy but dear ; " and connects silks 
and jewels, and but connects showy and dear; hence and and but are con- 
junctions. " He rides, if he is sick ; " " He rides, though he is sick ; " 
" He rides, because he is sick." Here if, though, and because are con- 
junctions, because each connects two clauses. 

Interjections. — Inter-jection means throwing between; and interjec- 
tions are so called because they are words loosely thrown in between other 
words. 0, ah, alas, pshaw, tut, pish, aha, and similar words, are inter- 
jections, because they are used to express sudden emotions, independ- 
ently of the other words which express some accompanying statement. 



20 oral course: 



SECTION VI. 

Tell which is the Noun, and which is the Adjective; and why : — 

A hungry wolf; a wooden spoon ; a lonely place ; a long 

sermon ; a rough road ; a fond parent ; a traveling agent ; 

a ferocious beast ; a sly fox ; an ingenious mechanic ; a 

stupid boy ; a heavy load ; a small pony ; a tall tree ; a 

jolly old farmer ; leafy woods ; a cold, wet night ; a sharp 

knife ; smooth white paper ; eyelids heavy and red ; every 

person ; five apples ; either way ; growling lions. 

Now change the foregoing phrases into sentences ; as, " The wolf was 
hungry; " " The spoon is made of wood; " etc. 

Distinguish Pronouns from Nouns, and define each : — 

My top ; ^ut/l^use-; thy home ; your company ; his 

horse ; its productions ; their concerns which ; her bonnet. 

Now change these phrases into sentences; as, " This is my top." 

Tell which is the Noun, and which is the Verb; and define each : — 

The cradle rocks. The baby sleeps. The tree fell. 

Farmers raise grain and cattle. Millers grind corn. Bakers 

bake bread. Butchers sell meat. Tailors make clothes. 

Merchants sell goods. Fishermen catch fish. Teachers 

instruct pupils. Hunters kill wild animals. The snail 

crawls. Serpents hiss. Grain is reaped. Goods are sold. 

£Tow change each of the foregoing sentences into a phrase ; as, " The rocking 
cradle ; " " A falling tree ; " M The grain-and-cattle-raising farmers." (Homeric.) 

Tell which is the Verb, and which is the Adverb ; and define each : — 
Walk rapidly. Write slowly. Playing rudely. Not 
going. The letter is well written. She visits us very 
often. The furnace is remarkably hot. He is sleeping 
soundly. The army fought very bravely. You have be- 
haved improperly. The water flows swiftly through the 
dam. Speak distinctly. The dogs barked furiously. 

Ex. — Walk is a verb, "because it tells what the person addressed is to do; 
rapidly is an adverb, because it tells how he is to walk. 

Tell which are the Adjectives, and which the Adverbs ; and why : — 

The good pupil studies diligently. In dangerous places 

proceed cautiously. Lost umbrellas are seldom found. 



INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 21 

Dark clouds generally bring rain. Lazy people are found 
everywhere. Deep rivers flow smoothly. Shallow brooks 
run noisily. The strongest horse ran farthest. Yonder 
tree is nearly dead. The heavy wagon broke down. The 
glowing furnace is intensely bright. 

Ex. — Good is an adjective, because it describes the pupil; diligently is an 
adverb, because it describes the studying. 

Change first into a phrase, and then into a sentence, or make sentences : — 
Soil, productive ; man, pious ; horse, blind ; child, play ; 
ox, strong ; farmer, plow ; swallow, swift ; fade, flowers ; 
bird, fly ; hills, steep ; wind, roar ; soldier, gallop and fight ; 
ducks, hogs, greedy; glitter, stars; rabbit, timid; apples, 
sour ; forest, dark, shady ; glitter, stars ; sting, bees ; gar- 
dener, trees, plant; grasshopper, grass, sing. 

Ex. — Productive soil. The soil is productive. Productive soil brings large 
crops. A playing child. A child at play. The child plays. 

Tell of what part of speech each word is, and why: — 

The cork-tree sheds its bark every ten years. 

** Ex. — The is an article, because it is placed before the word corJc-tree to 
show that a particular object is meant. Cork-tree is a noun, because it is the 
name of an object. And so on. 

A snake crept through the fence, into the grass. 

The meadow is covered with grass and flowers. 

Dear, patient, gentle, noble Nell is dead ! 

Good order is the foundation of all good things. 

God reared the mountains with their pine-clad spires. 

On this stream we found magnolias and cedars. 

If it continue to rain, the river will rise. 

Thunder rolled in every quarter of the heavens. 

Ha, ha, ha ! he is a fine gentleman truly. 

Her eyes looked into every eye that fell upon them. 

The grapes were sour, but the peaches were deliciously ripe. 

Her glad blue eyes were on me as we stood in friendly chat. 

He springs from his hammock, he flies to the deck. 

Like mountains the billows tremendously swell. 

You must wake and call me early, call me early, mother dear. 

0, look ! the sun begins to rise, the heavens are in a glow. 

I thought to pass away before, and yet alive I am. 



22 ORAL COURSE. 

Mabel has a beautiful pet squirrel, named Watt, which 
has a long, handsome tail. At first, Watt used to run 
about the rooms of the house just where he liked; but he 
soon became so troublesome, putting his little nose into 
every thing, upsetting books and vases and inkstands, that 
Mabel's father made him a snug little house out of a box, 
and put some flat iron bars in front, so that he could look 
out ; and in this cage he put a small box filled with rags, 
that Watt might thint they were leaves, and could creep 
under them, and go to sleep. It is much better for Watt 
to be in this cage most of the time, for before this it was 
too much care for Mabel to watch that the cat, Tommie, did 
not catch him and kill him, or that the doors were not left 
open by which he could run away. 

Resolve into as many propositions, or simple statements, as possible ; resolve 
these into their subjects and predicates ; mention the parts of speech : — 

Peace. — Lovely art thou, Peace ! and lovely are thy 
children, and lovely are thy foot-prints in the green valleys. 

Blue wreaths of smoke ascend through the trees, and 
betray the half-hidden cottage ; barns are bursting with 
plenty ; the peasant laughs at the approaching winter. 

White houses peep through the trees; cattle stand cool- 
ing in the pool ; the casement of the farm-house is covered 
with jessamine and honeysuckle ; the stately greenhouse 
exhales the perfume of summer climates. 

War. — They have rushed through like a hurricane ; 
like an army of locusts they have devoured the land. 

The smoke rises not through the trees, for the honors of 
the grove are fallen, and the heart of the cottager is cold ; 
but it rises from villages burned with fire, and from warm 
ruins spread over the now naked plain. 

The temples are profaned ; the soldier's curse resounds 
in the house of God ; the marble pavement is trampled by 
iron hoofs ; horses neigh beside the altar. 

Every thing unholy and unclean comes abroad from its 
lurking-place, and deeds of darkness are done beneath the 



1. A Noun or Pronoun may be < 



INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 23 

eye of day. No one careth for another; every one, hard- 
ened by misery, careth for himself alone. 

D^ 3 " In like manner, exercise your pupils in their reading-books. 

SECTION VII. 

Words are bound together in sentences by a few 
relations only. 

The chief of these relations are the following : — 

the subject of a verb, 
the object of a verb, 
the object of a preposition, 
a term denoting the pos- 
sessor of some person 
or thing, 
a term explanatory of 
another noun or pro- 
noun denoting the 
same person or thing. 

A Pronoun refers to the noun or term which it represents. 

2. An Article or an Adjective relates to a noun or pronoun. 

3. A Verb relates to some noun or pronoun as its subject. 

A Participle or an Infinitive relates to an expressed or indefinite 

subject ; and it may besides have the sense of a noun, an adjective, or an 

adverb. 

When a verbal form does not predicate, and partakes of the nature of a noun, 
an adjective, or an adverb, the teacher should thereby lead the pupil to the con- 
clusion that it must be a participle or an infinitive. 

4. An Adverb relates to a verb, an adjective, or another 

adverb. 

5. A Preposition shows the relation of a following noun or 

pronoun to some other word. [tences. 

6. A Conjunction connects words, phrases, clauses, or sen- 

7. Interjections, and nouns or pronouns in address, are used 

independently. 
The Nouns and Pronouns, and why ; and their relation to other words of 
the sentence : — 

The wind blew the dust into our eyes. 

Ex. — Wind is a noun, the subject of blew ; dust is a noun, the object of 
blew ; eyes is a noun, the object of into. What did the wind do ? blew what ? 
into what ? 



24 ORAL COURSE. 

John's horse has eaten the corn in the trough. 
Paris, the capital of France, is a large city. 

Capital is a noun, explanatory of Paris, and denoting the same thing. 

The swallow seems to love the habitations of man. 

The flesh of the hippopotamus is eaten by the Hottentots. 

The hunters spent the whole night among the crags and 

precipices of the mountains, which seemed to be features 

of the earth touched with God's own majesty. 
I will not forsake thee, dear friend of my youth. 
Thou art, Lord ! my strength and my redeemer. 
Pope professed to have learned his poetry from Dryden, 

whom throughout life he praised with unvaried liberality. 
Amidst joy and love, ambition and success, it is better to 

be cut off like a plucked rose than to wither into nothing. 

Mention the Articles and Adjectives, and to what they relate : — 
It was a gusty, playful wind, frolicking with leafy trees. 

Ex. — A is an article, relating to wind; gusty is an adjective, relating to 
wind ; etc. What kind of object ? Which wind ? What kind of wind ? 

Africa is the native land of the negro race, [green carpet. 
The young grass covers the dark ground like a delicate 
In winter, the prairies are gloomy and desolate. [pines. 

Scarlet and golden maples waved below million-fingered 
In this nook, we saw four or five squirrels, some turkeys, 
and many partridges. [intellectual. 

In the temperate zones, people are most healthy, happy, and 

I climbed the dark brow of the mighty Helvellyn ; 

Lakes and mountains beneath me gleamed misty and wide. 
Mention the Verbs, and to what subjects they refer : — 
Each flower expands its little leaves. 

Expands is a verb, telling what the flower does, and relating to flower. 
What is said of the subject ? what does it do ? 

The vessel struck a hidden rock, and sunk. 

The breeze blows cool ; the waters quiver under it ; and 

softened sunbeams pour around a fairy light. 
We walked the deck, and gazed upon the billows. 
Approach, and behold, while I raise the sable pall ! 
Our work was done, and we were seated under the old elm. 



INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 25 

Down the hills of Angostura still the storm of battle rolls ; 
Blood is flowing, men are dying ; God have mercy on their souls ! 

A Participle is a verb that euds with ing, sometimes with ed, and 
does not predicate. 

An Infinitive is a verb that begins with to, and does not predicate. 

Mention not only the complete Verbs* but also the Participles and Infinitives ; 
and show, in each case, of what other parts of speech these partake : -— 

They bounded ; they fought ; they screamed ; they tore ; 

they ran howling round and round the circle. 

Howling is a participle referring to they as its subject, and partaking of the 
nature of an adverb because it tells how they ran. 

Opening flowers were there, for making sweetest posies. 
How dense and bright yon pearly clouds reposing lie. 
The woodlands, awaking, burst into a hymn. 
The bee brought his honey, to sweeten the feast. (Why?) 
The clouds, touched by the sun, seemed to glow with fire. 
To throw stones at birds is not the way to catch them. 

Mention the Adverbs, and to what they relate: — 
The eagle flies swiftly. God is everywhere. 

Swiftly is an adverb, because it tells how the eagle flies, and relates to flies. 
Adverbs are found by asking How 1 When 7 Where ? In what degree ? etc. 

Agriculture regularly and sufficiently supplies us with food. 

They softly lie, and sweetly sleep, low in the ground. 

Never before did I see her look so pale. 

She looked back with regret, and forward with fear. 

He has already been there very frequently. 

You are yet young enough to learn quite easily. 

Your book is more beautiful, but mine is more useful. 

Perhaps I have been rather idle hitherto ; but henceforth I 

will certainly try to study more diligently. 
However patient you may be, when you have been treated 

once or twice so shabbily, you will do as I did. [garden. 

England is so highly cultivated that it looks like one vast 

The Prepositions, and between what they show the relation : — 

The Conjunctions, and what they connect : — 

The Interjections, and other words used independently : — 

The surface of the earth consists of land and water. 

Of is a preposition showing the relation of earth to surface. (What surface ? 
What of the earth ?) And is a conjunction, connecting land and water. 



26 ORAL COURSE. 

Streams of water generally flow into lakes, and from them. 
Alas ! my noble boy, that thou shouldst die ! 
The earth, or globe on which we live, is not perfectly round. 
The people are healthy, though the climate is severe, [deep. 
Glide on, Moon ! fairer than a silvery boat in the upper 
If you deal with a fox, think of his tricks. 
He upbraided them, because they repented not. 
The dog meant play ; but, hoity-toity ! how the cat raised 
her back, and growled, notwithstanding he was so friendly ! 

Resolve into as many propositions, or simple statements, as possible ; re- 
solve these into their subjects and predicates ; tell of what part of speech each 
word is, and point out its relation to some other word : — » 

The Little Bird's Complaint. 

Here in this wiry prison caged, I sing, 

And think of sweet green woods, and long to fly ; 

Unable once to stretch my feeble wing, 

Or wave my feathers in the clear blue sky. 

Day after day, the self-same things I see, 
The cold white ceiling, and this wiry house ; 

Ah ! how unlike my healthy native tree, 

Rocked by the winds, that whistled through the boughs. 

Oh J how I long to stretch my weary wings, 

And fly away as far as eye can see ; 
And from the topmost bough where Robin sings, 

Pour my wild songs, and be as blithe as he. 

Why was I taken from my waving nest ; 

From flowery fields, wild woods, and hedges green ? 
Torn from my mother's warm and downy breast, 

In this sad prison-house to die unseen ? 

Kind lady, come, with gentle, pitying hand, 

Unbar my prison-door, and set me free ; 
Then on the white-thorn bush I'll take my stand, 

And sing sweet songs to freedom and to thee- 



INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 27 



Blackboard Exercises* 

[Grammar is probably best taught, or introduced to a class, by a series 
of blackboard exercises. At least, an exposition of this kind, as natural as 
possible, should accompany other exercises; and in the hands of a skillful 
teacher, who can make subjects both instructive and interesting, it may be 
best to begin the study of grammar in this way. 

We naturally first notice objects; they make impressions on us; and 
then we say something of them. The words denoting objects are such as 
man, tree, house, sun, river, book, brook, mill, meadow, horse. Let the teacher 
write one of the simplest and most suggestive nouns on the blackboard. 

Man. 

Man works. 

Man makes machines. 

At first, the sentences should be omitted, and simply the word man 
should be presented ; or things should be so brought upon the blackboard, 
and rubbed away, as to appear suocessively. " One thing at a time," and 
" From one learn all," are good maxims in teaching. 

The teacher may now begin with the word man, by showing the differ- 
ence between the spoken and the written word, and between the word as a 
sign and the object itself. She may show that the word must be a Noun; 
and that such words as the, a, wise, slowly, and, and are not like it, and 
therefore can not be nouns. We learn best by comparing and contrasting. 
The teacher may define a word, and then a noun ; and whenever she gives a 
definition, the class may in concert repeat it several times after her. If con- 
venient, they may also first write it on their slates, as soon as she gives it, 
and then repeat it several times. Define a letter in the same way; then a 
syllable ; and then annex ful or ly to man, so as show that there are derivative 
words. Also combine the word man with some other word, as work, Jire, 
slaughter, to show that there are compound words. Let every newly dis- 
covered thing be named and defined as soon as obtained; and dwell upon 
these things until they are fixed in the mind. Indeed, the entire exercise 
should be like a regular and well-planned excursion for discoveries in lan- 
guage; and as soon as a new thing appears, let it be named, defined, and 
illustrated by additional examples. It is still better, where it can be done, 
always first to suppose a state of things that shall make necessary the ele- 
ment to be introduced. 

The teacher may now pass down through the various classes and proper- 
ties of nouns, by bringing up collaterally, for comparison, such other nouns 
as will show the various accidents. For instance, she may mention the 
words Brown, Jones, Smith, Alison, or the 'names of some well-known citi- 
zens; and thus show that there must be proper and common nouns. Let each 
kind be defined, and further illustrated, as suggested above. She may now 
write under the word man the word army, and then show that this word can 
be applied only to a collection of men just as man maybe applied to an indi- 
vidual. Thus the collective noun is obtained. Again," she may add the word 
manliness or manhood, and show how this differs from man ; "thus obtaining 
the abstract noun. Now write below the word man the word icoman, and 
under this the word person, and under this the word book. From these four 
words, teach the genders. Next, the teacher may show that there can be a 
speaker, some one spoken to, or some person or thing spoken of; and, put- 
ting 7" for man, then you for man. she may thus find the persons. The teacher 
may now put the word men under man, and thus lead her pupils to the idea 
of number, thence to the numbers. Of course, additional illustrations should 
be given to establish the idea better. Lastly, the teacher should write beside 
the word man the word man's, and beside men the word men's; thus leading 
the pupils to case, or to the fact that words tell something only when used 



28 ORAL COURSE. 

with other words, or in groups. There is also a good opportunity here to 
teach wjiat is meant by a Rale of syntax. The teacher may again take up 
the subject, and say that the word man, by itself, tells nothing; and that 
another word, at least, must be joined to it 'if something is to be said. She 
may suggest the word works, thinks, mourns, suffers, rules, or any other. The 
curiosity of the pupils should now be excited by announcing the important 
fact that a SENTENCE has been obtained. This should be defined, and 
other short sentences should be given to fix the impression. The pupils 
may also be required to make sentences. The teacher may next show that 
lie can be substituted for man, and also for a variety of masculine nouns, as 
George, John, Henry, horse, drake; and that she can be substituted for femi- 
nine nouns, as Mary, Susan, woman, girl, cow, duck ; thus leading her pupils 
to the pronouns. The kinds of pronouns may now be briefly but clearly 
explained ; and the teacher should then show that pronouns are and must 
be similar to nouns, — a fact that is embodied in a Rule. Having thus 
reached the end, the teacher may try to excite the wonder of the pupils as 
to how much can be learned from a single word ; and she may also cheer 
them with the fact that when they have Jearned one w y ord they already know 
the nature of hundreds of others, and are rapidly getting rich in knowledge. 

The teacher may now take up the Verb, and show how it differs from the 
noun. A word that tells something about an object, must be different from 
the word which denotes the object. It may be also well to show, by analogy, 
that, as there are different kinds of flowers, trees, animals, etc., so it is 
reasonable to suppose that there are different kinds of words; and as almost 
every object has several qualities — such as color, size, shape, etc., so it is 
reasonable to suppose that almost every word has several properties. After 
a suitable introduction, go on with the verb, and let the pupils be conducted 
through it as they were conducted through the noun. Since the moods are 
simply the different ways of expressing the act or state in regard to its 
subject, they should be carefully presented, and then branched out into the 
tenses, and these into the forms or styles, and these into the various persons 
and numbers. In unfolding the verb, it is particularly easy and expedient to 
show always in advance that the nature of things requires the peculiar form 
or forms that are to be presented. In connection with moods, the teacher 
should also show the difference between a predicate-verb and a mere partici- 
ple or infinitive, — between a predication and what is not a predication, 
between an assertion and a mere assumption, or between a sentence and a 
phrase. " The man good " tells nothing; but " The man is good " is a clear 
statement. " A lady singing," " A singing lady," are mere phrases; " The 
lady is singing," "The lady sings," are assertions or sentences. Since the 
verb is closely dependent on its subject, and varies according to the person 
and number of the subject, it will be easy to teach here what are called 
government and agreement in syntax. The attention of the pupils may also 
be now directed to Parsing, as being simply an orderly enumeration of the 
instructive things that can be learned about words. Lastly, it may be 
shown that all the elements thus taught are really useful, or conducive to a 
great end. The chief object of grammar being to teach us how to speak 
and write correctly, it is necessary for us to be familiar with the different 
forms of words, in order that we may always be able to choose the right. 

Now the teacher may commence with the modifiers, or adjuncts, to the 
principal parts. 

Trees grow. 

The tree grows. 

Young trees grow rapidly. 

Our trees do not grow. 

Our two young trees are now growing. 



INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 29 

Our two young trees are now growing very rapidly. 

Trees bear fruit. 

Several old trees yet bear very excellent fruit. 

Jones is a blacksmith. 

Jones the blacksmith is strong. 

Jones the blacksmith is a very strong man. 

Having obtained the two principal elements, add to them successively the 
different kinds of Articles, Adjectives, and Adverbs, — single words ; and thus 
enlarge the sentence in all tiie various ways in which it can be enlarged. 
Show the difference between principal and subordinate parts, by writing on 
the board a sentence of this kind: "The paths of glory lead but to the 
grave." Rub away all but "paths '* and "lead," and these two words still 
make sense; therefore they are principal parts: but rub away " paths " and 
" lead," and the remaining words no longer make sense, or they make sense 
only when attached to the other two words, and are therefore subordinate. 
Show the necessity for modifiers, or adjuncts ; for without them the thought 
would be imperfectly expressed, or the meaning would be left too wide, loose, 
or indefinite. The more modifiers we use, the more we narrow the scope of 
the sentence ; but in the same proportion the sentence becomes sharper and 
more distinct. Explain the peculiar nature of Articles, Adjectives, and Ad- 
verbs, just as you unfolded the nature of nouns and verbs. After having 
presented adverbs of manner, time, place, and degree, you may ask, with 
reference to a sentence of this kind — " Our trees do not grow," whether not 
denies the trees or the growing. To what, then, does not relate ? and what 
must it be, though it does not express manner, place, time, or degree ? Rules 
of syntax may also be taught as occasions arise for them. 

Having disposed of modifying words, introduce Modifying Phrases, but 
only the most common and important, — the prepositional phrase, the parti- 
cipial phrase, and the infinitive phrase. 

The trees in the meadow are growing rapidly. 

The tree fell into the field. 

The trees planted last year are dead. 

The trees to be planted now, have not yet arrived. 

Trees were planted to shade the house. 

Begin by showing that " The trees in," " The trees in the," would not make 
satisfactory sense; and that something more is needed, or that we must 
say, " The trees in the meadow," to get a complete idea. Such expressions 
as* in the meadow, on the hill, by the brook, behind the house, beyond the river, are 
called prepositional jyhrases ; and the words in, on, by, behind, and beyond are 
called Prepositions. Define, explain, and illustrate fully. Next dispose of 
participial phrases and infinitive phrases in like manner; and show also how 
thev are used in the sense of nouns. 

Now introduce the principal Modifying Clauses, — those which begin with 
relative pronouns, conjunctive adverbs, and subordinate conjunctions. 

The trees which have many leaves bear but little fruit. 

Trees grow best where they are sheltered from winds. 

The tree grows rapidly because the soil is rich. 

I see that you have cut down the old elm. 

Draw attention to the fact that the added element is itself a statement; 
and say that such an element is called a clause. (Definitions, explanations, 



30 ORAL COURSE. 

illustrations.) Show the nature of dependent clauses; or that they are, like 
the phrases above, but adjectives, adverbs, or nouns. Speak of the connect- 
ing word ; and show that the rest of the clause is nothing but a simple state- 
ment. It is now convenient to show the distinction between simple sentences 
and composite. The teacher may also add here that the adjective, the adver- 
bial, and the substantive idea in language are expressed either by words, 
phrases, ov clauses ; and she may present such illustrations as the following: 
" A wise man will act cautiously; " " A man of wisdom will act cautiously ; " 
u A man who gives good advice does not always follow it himself." a The 
candidate spoke here;" k ' The candidate spoke in this place; " "The candi- 
date spoke where the people had assembled. 1 ' 

Now introduce Conjunctions and Compound elements. Let the different 
parts of the sentence be successively compounded, and lastly show that 
statements themselves may be compounded. 

Trees and bushes grow along the river. 

Young and thrifty trees adorn the Park. 

The trees wave and rustle in the breeze, 

Trees bear fruit and leaves. 

The limbs of the tree extend over the house and into the garden. 

Large trees stand on yonder hill, and crows are cawing there. 

4£g="To the foregoing outline of exercises, the inventive teacher can easily 
add many other useful exercises. The kinds of certain classes of objects may 
be mentioned; the parts of certain objects; the contents. The same adjective or 
verb niay be suitably joined to many different nouns; or the same noun to many 
different adjectives or verbs. Adjectives and adverbs may be contrasted, also 
nouns and pronouns. All things liable to be confounded may be contrasted in 
columns. (So far as convenient, the exercises should be arranged in columns; 
especially when the items are related.) Highly instructive and interesting sen- 
tences may be written on the blackboard, and carefully analyzed and parsed, to 
serve as general and durable models. Pithy extracts may be written on the 
blackboard; and pupils may be required to write in columns the parts of speech 
in them, and then make new sentences from these words. The teacher may also 
give a pithy word or phrase, and let it go rapidly round the class, each pupil 
making a different sentence in which it is properly used.] 



SECTION VIII. 

The most important parts of speech, and the principles 
which affect them in their combinations, may be presented 
in the following brief and comprehensive scheme : — 

! Nouns ) 
and V—^ words, changes, phrases, and clauses, 
Pronouns ) 

2. Adjectives — words, changes, phrases, and clauses, 

3. ^erbs — words, changes, and phrases. 

4. Adverbs — words, changes, phrases, and clauses. 
Parsing takes in words and their changes ; or it aims to 

give ns such a knowledge of them ; that we may know how 



INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 31 

to avoid mistakes in making sentences, or in our combina- 
tions of words to express thoughts. 

Analysis disregards changes, but recognizes tvords, 
phrases, and clauses, with their relations. 

The analysis of language, as a study in our schools, is to resolve 
the words of sentences into certain classes ; to mention the princi- 
ples which produce changes in each general class, particularly 
with reference to the peculiar ideas and changes of the word 
under consideration ; to show what phrases and clauses perform 
the office of words ; and to specify the various relations accord- 
ing to which the words, phrases, and clauses are bound together. 

Nouns and Pronouns. 

The pronouns are, in reality, but a species of nouns; common, like the com- 
mon nouns, but only much more so, and therefore fit to be used as substitutes 
for nouns generally. Even in the use of nouns, we often, to avoid disagreeable 
repetition, adopt those of a more general meaning as substitutes for others that 
are more specific. I can say, for instance, " The horse was brought, but he was 
too poor to ride;" or, " The horse was brought, but the creature was too poor 
to ride." And the word thing is almost a pronoun, so general is it in its appli- 
cations. Pronouns, then, serve as nouns for those objects which have no other 
names, or none so definite, or of which the names are not known; and pronouns 
are also the general substitutes for nouns. 

Words. 

Many of the single words used in language are either nouns or pro- 
nouns. In the following sentences, mention the nouns and the pronouns, 
and why you believe them to be such words : — 

A young rider should have an old horse. Business is the salt 
of life. Children cry for nuts and apples, and old men for gold 
and silver. Child's pig, but father's bacon. John has come. He 
has come. Mary broke the pitcher. She broke it. May I eat the 
apple which you brought ? May I have what you brought ? Cob- 
blers and tinkers are often drinkers. He that is master of him- 
self, will soon be master of others. 

Changes, 

Most errors, in the use of language, are caused by selecting wrong 
forms. Nouns and pronouns show themselves in a great variety of 
forms, which are best learned by studying the following classes and 
properties of these parts of speech : — 

Nouns. 

Proper. A proper noun is the name given to a particular 

object, to distinguish it from other objects of the same 

kind. 



32 ORAL COURSE. 

Common. A common noun is a name common to all objects 
of the same kind. 

John is a proper noun, because it is the name given to a particular boy, to 
distinguish him from other boys ; but boy is a common noun, for it can be 
applied to any one of a certain class of persons. 

A proper noun must always begin with a capital letter, but a common 
noun should generally begin with a small letter. 

Proper. Common. Proper. Common. Proper. Common. 

Chicago, city. Henry, boy. France, country. 

Hudson, river. Susan, girl. Monday, day. x 

Cuba, island. Mr. Smith, man. Cape May, cape. 

Here it is evident that the proper nouns denote individual objects, and the 
common nouns denote classes; the proper nouns are definite, and the common 
nouns are indefinite ; the proper nouns answer to who or which, and the common 
nouns answer to what. 

Tell which are proper nouns, and which are common nouns; and why : — 
Alice, girl, Mary, woman, Mrs. Jones, June, month, island, 
Borneo, mountains, Andes, Rocky Mountains, king, Charles XIL, 
general, Hannibal, March, October, river, Mississippi, Ohio, Ten- 
nessee, state, United States, Mexico. Ferdinand and Isabella, 
the king and queen of Spain, enabled Columbus, a Genoese, to 
discover America. 

Genders. 

Masculine. The masculine gender denotes males. 

Feminine. The feminine gender denotes females, [males. 

Common. The common gender denotes either males or fe- 

Neuter. The neuter gender denotes neither males nor 

females. 

The nouns man, boy, and drake are of the masculine gender, because they 
denote males; the nouns woman, girl, and cow are of the feminine gender, 
because they denote females ; the nouns parent, cousin, and bird are of the 
common gender, because they denote either" males or females ; and the nouns 
house, tree, and chair are of the neuter gender, because they denote neither 
males nor females. 

Tell of what gender, and why : — 

Brother, sister, son, daughter, child, uncle, aunt, father, mother, 
parent, man, woman, person, gentleman, lady, hunter, huntress, 
actor, actress, book, snow, robin, mouse, he, she, they, it, I, you, 
Julius, Julia, landlord, landlady, executor, executrix, ruler. 

He is a boy. She is a girl. It is a tree. I met him. You 
met her. We met them. He is my father. She is my mother. 
His brother is a duke. His sister is a duchess. He is a nephew, 
and she is a niece, of my friend. My brother took his carriage, 



INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 33 

to meet our grandmother as she was coming home. There were 

kings and queens, counts and countesses, heroes and heroines, at 

the banquet. 

'Ex. — Brother is of the masculine gender, because it denotes a male ; and the 
different form sister is of the feminine gender, because it denotes a female. He 
is of the masculine gender, because it denotes a male. She, which corresponds 
to he, but has a different form, is of the feminine gender, because it denotes a 
female. 

Persons. 

First. The first person denotes the speaker. 
Second. The second person denotes the person spoken to. 
Third. The third person denotes the person or thing 
spoken of. 

Tell of what person, and why : — 

I, you, he, we, my, myself, us, thee, yourself, himself, themselves, 
it, me, others, what, hers, thou, thy, thyself. 

I am. Thou art. He is. We are. You are. They are. I 

was. Thou wast. He was. We were. You were. They were. 

I have been. You have been. He has been. I know my lesson. 

You know your lesson. He knows his lesson. They know theirs. 

We think that you and he have hid our peaches in your basket. 

Ex. — I is of the first person, because it denotes the speaker. Am is of the 
first person, because it refers to the speaker. 

Numbers. 

Singular. The singular number denotes but one. 

Plural. The plural number denotes more than one. 

Tell of what number, and why : — 

Book, books, rose, roses, violet, violets, knife, knives, bench, 
benches, boy, boys, lily, lilies, man, men, child, children, goose, 
geese, mouse, mice, he, they, I, we, me, us, him, them. Themselves, 
himself, this, these, that, those, yourself, yourselves, family, families, 
salt, ashes, one, many, brother-in-law, brothers-in-law, sister-in-law, 
sisters-in-law, leaf, leaves, man-servant, men-servants. 

One is. Two or more are. One was. Two or more were. 

One has been. Two or more have been. One reads. Two m or 

more read. The man works. The men work. My tooth is 

sound. My teeth are sound. That goose is white. Those geese 

are white. The boy has lost his knife. The boys have lost their 

knives. The girl has recited her lesson. The girls have recited 

their lessons. The fox is a cunning animal. Foxes are cunning 
3 



34 ORAL COURSE. 

animals. My foot is sore. My feet are sore. Our feet are sore. 
The child sleeps. The children sleep. The mouse ran into its 
hole. The mice ran into their holes. I am busy. We are busy. 
Thou art guilty. Ye are guilty. I know myself. We know our- 
selves. He knows himself. They know themselves. By this 
means he lost all. By these means he lost all. Marbles are made 
from marble. Silk is a kind of material, but silks are different 
kinds of silk, and teas are different kinds of tea. 

Ex. — Book is of the singular number, because it denotes but one. Books is 
of the plural number, because it denotes more than one. Is is of the singular 
number, because it refers to but one. Are is of the plural number, because it 
refers to more than one. 

Make plural by annexing S: — 

Ball, pencil, table, stove, horse, pen, finger, hand, wall, house, 
fruit, pocket, shoe, willow, hat, cap, bird, button, frog, squirrel. 

Make plural by annexing es : — 

Church, box, ditch, switch, fox, watch, dish, bush, blotch, wish, 
negro, no, dress, glass, kiss, atlas, mattress. ' 

Cases. [case. 

Nominative. The subject of a verb is in the nominative 

A predicate noun or pronoun, explaining the subject, is 
in the nominative case. (Explain.) 

A noun or pronoun, used merely to address a person, is 
in the nominative case. \_sessive case. 

Possessive. A possessive noun or pronoun is in the pos- 
Objective. The object of a verb is in the objective case. 

The object of a preposition is in the objective case. 

A noun or pronoun, denoting the same person or thing 
as another, is generally in the same case. 

The case, and why : — 

John found Mary's book. Jones is a printer. Lady, weep no 
more for me. Lucy's lamb nips the grass. Fair blooms the lily. 
He saw me. I saw him. He did not hear thee. Thou didst not 
hear him. Time is life and money. The horse ran through the 
mud. Who came for them? They are meant for whom? He 
was the leader. He wrote his name in his book. Friends, Romans, 
countrymen ! lend me your ears. Conrad, the slanderer and 
pedant, was dismissed. John shot some squirrels in his father's 



INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 35 

field. Your brothers friend sent James to me. Your friend's 

brother sent me to James. My brother's friend sent James to you. 

James sent your brother's iriend to me. J sent your friend's 

brother to James. You sent James to my friend's brother. 

Ex. — John is a noun in the nominative case, because it is the subject of the 
verb found. Mary's is a noun in the possessive case, because it denotes the 
possessor of book. Book is a noun in the objective case, because it is the object 
of found. 

Phrases gre sometimes used as nouns. 

Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated by the Duke of Wellington. 

For me to go is impossible. It is impossible never to err. To see 

the sun rise is pleasant. To be without icants is the prerogative 

of God. We saw the ship sink. Gen. Washington stationed a 

small force in Long Island Sound. Let this tree stand. To be a 

good Christian was his highest ambition. To be good is to be happy. 

(Goodness is happiness.) There was little safety in being a soldier. 

The dread of being left alone made her sad. He knew not what to 

do. They came from beyond Jordan. God from the dark and foul 

brings out the pure and bright. 

J&g~ The teacher should drill her pupils by means of such questions as the 
following: Who was defeated? by ivhom? What is impossible? What is 
pleasant ? What did we see ? Little safety in what ? 

Clauses are sometimes used as nouns. 

That he must fail, is certain. I saw how a pin is made. Do you 
know where he lives. Who can tell who he is ? We hope that you 
will be successful. It is said that rattle-snakes live in winter in the 
holes of prairie-dogs. Can you guess why he staid at home ? Say, 
father, must I stay? A bright laurel grows just beyond where 
Wirt lies buried. 

Adjectives, 
Words. 

Many of the single words used in language are adjectives. Mention 
the adjectives in the following sentences, and why you believe them to 
be adjectives : — 

The night was dark and rainy. Bright stars shone above us, 
and dewy flowers below. By an innocent child, grew a snow- 
white flower. This little purling stream soon became a broad, 
deep, and turbulent river. That farm has been cultivated four 
years. Some apples are rosy, but most apples are green or yellow. 



36 ORAL COURSE. 

She is a young and beautiful lady, with eyes bright, blue, and 

affectionate. Poets speak of the star-powdered galaxy and the 

rosy-fingered morn. 

Ex. — Dark is an adjective, describing night. This is an adjective, relating 
to stream. What kind of night ? How was the night? Which stream? 
How many years ? By means of such questions, adjectives may be found. 

Changes. 

Degrees of Comparison. 

Positive. The positive degree denotes simply the quality. 

Comparative. The comparative degree denotes a higher 

or lower degree of the quality. 
Superlative. The superlative degree denotes the highest 

or lowest degree of the quality. 

Tell in what degree, and why : — 

Wise, wiser, wisest, less wise, least wise, great, greater, greatest, 
deepest, deeper, deep, much, more, most, good, better, best, useful, 
more useful, most useful, happy, happier, happiest, less happy, 
least happy, most unhappy. 

A cold day ; a colder day ; the coldest day. The day was cold. 
The day was colder. The day was the coldest. Large fish live in 
deep water. Larger fish live in deeper water. The largest fish 
live in the deepest water. Wisdom is more precious than gold. 
The most expensive things are not always the most useful. 

Ex. — Wise is an adjective in the positive degree, because it denotes simply 
the quality. 

Compare by annexing the endings ev and est : — 
Rich, poor, long, short, small, lazy, severe, lovely, gay, black, 
red, sweet, high, low, cheap, polite, dear. 

Ex. — Positive, rich ; comparative, richer ; superlative, richest. 

Compare by placing move and most before the word : — 
Industrious, neglectful, successful, productive, restless, cheerful, 
fortunate, unfortunate, deceitful, attentive, joyful, sorrowful. 

A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition. 

A participial phrase generally begins with a participle. 

An infinitive phrase generally begins with an infinitive. 

The following sentence contains these three kinds of phrases : " To shield 
ourselves from the heat, we wandered into a green valley, \ shaded by lofty 
trees." The first phrase is infinitive; the second, prepositional ; and the third, 
participial. These three kinds of phrases are the principal ones in language ; 
and they are used as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns. 



INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 37 

Phrases are often used as adjectives. 

There is no place of safety for him. There is no safe place for 
him. A man of perseverance generally succeeds. A persevering 
man generally succeeds. He was without home and without friends. 
He was homeless and friendless. The path through the meadow is 
the nearest. The meadow-path is the nearest. People then wore 
buttons of brass and buckles of silver. People then wore brass 
buttons and silver buckles. The garments, scorched by the fire, are 
worthless. The trees, growing along the river, are the largest. 
Knives, made from steel, are the best. There were birds, singing 
in the glen, and hopping from branch to branch. The horse to be 
sold is now here. I have no wish to become a candidate. He has 
no money to throw away. She has no cause to be angry with me. 

What kind of place ? What kind of man ? How was he ? What describes 
him ? Which path ? What kind of garments ? Which horse ? What kind of 
wish ? 

A relative clause generally begins with who, which, what, 

that, or as. 
An adverbial clause generally begins with when, where, 

while, how, as, ivhy, before, after, or till. 
A conjunctive Clause, that is dependent, generally begins 

with that, than, as, if, for, or because. 

The following sentence contains these three kinds of clauses: "That we 
might be shielded from the heat, we sat down where the brook flows nearest to 
the old elm | which has the thickest foliage." These three kinds of clauses are 
the principal ones found in language ; and they are used as adjectives, adverbs, 
or nouns. 

Clauses are often used as adjectives. 

The people who flatter you are not your friends. The rain 
which fell yesterday, has been very refreshing. The house in which 
we live was built fifty years ago. The lady who sings so ivell came 
from Italy. We respect those who respect themselves. He should 
blame them whose fault it is. We are now on the hill where the 
battle was fought. There never was a time when money icas harder 
to get. He who is fond of solitude is generally fond of studying. 
They who deserve least are often the first to complain. We bought 
such goods as we could sell again. He had a presentiment that he 
would be killed in the next battle. 

What kind of people ? What people ? What rain ? Which house ? On 
what hill ? What kind of person is generally fond of studying ? What kind of 
presentiment ? 



38 ORAL COURSE. 

«7 a Verbs. 

Words. 

Many of the single words used in language are verbs. In the follow- 
ing sentences, mention the verbs, and why you believe them to be 
verbs : — 

Jesus wept. Rain fell. The dog howled. The lark rises and 
sings. We removed to a new place. He is a Jew. The trumpets 
sounded. Sordid dust lies here. Strike for the green graves of 
your sires. What conquests brings he home ? She smiled when 
he said this. Go, and prosper. We spell, read, and write. One 
bright star, above the grave, glowed and twinkled like an angel's eye. 

Phrases, Inflectional. — They are going to the city. She is 
reading a new book. The moonlight is glimmering on the water. 
My friend ivas robbed. If he be killed, we shall perish. Hear me, 
for I will speak. Their ranks are breaking like thin clouds. What 
have you been doing? The dawn had scarcely tinged the east, 
when the army was roused from slumber. 

What did Jesus do? What is said of him? What is said of the dust? 
What are you to do ? What are they doing ? What will they do ? What is she 
doing ? By means of such questions, find the verbs. 

When a verb, in stead of being changed in its form, is combined with little 
helping verbs, it is^usually still called but a word, even with the verbs that help 
it; in other words, those compact phrases, which consist of two or more verbs 
combined, to express a modification or inflection of the principal verb, are still 
called but words, because they take the place of variations or inflections of the 
principal word itself. The little helping verbs are called auxiliary verbs. 

Changes. 
Verbs. 

Regular. Regular verbs take the ending ed. 
Irregular. Irregular verbs do not take the ending ed. 
From what verb ; and whether regular or irregular : — 
We advanced. We came. I obtained nothing. I got nothing. 
I saw him. I noticed him. We sat near him. We rested under 
the tree. They retreated. They went back. They ran away. A 
sparkling cross she wore. He watched and wept, he prayed and 
felt, for all. When they heard his threats, they feared him. 

Ex. — Advanced, from advance, is a regular verb, because it takes the end- 
ing ed. Came, from come, is an irregular verb, because it does not take the 
ending ed. 

Verbs. 

Transitive. Transitive verbs have objects. 

Intransitive. Intransitive verbs do not have objects. 



INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 39 

The verbs, and whether transitive or intransitive : — 

The horse kicks. The horse kicked the boy. He reads and 
writes. He read a book, and wrote a letter. The storm is gath- 
ering. Mary is gathering roses. The wind blew. The wind blew 
the dust along the road. She washes, bakes, and cooks. She 
washes clothes, bakes bread, and cooks the vegetables. 

Is it said that the horse kicks any thing ? — that he kicked any thing ? 

Voices. 

Active, The active voice represents the subject as acting. 
Passive. The passive voice represents the subject as acted 
Only the transitive verbs have the voices. [upon. 

Tell whether active or passive, and why : — 

Merchants sell goods. Goods are sold by merchants. Carpen- 
ters and masons build houses. Houses are built by carpenters and 
masons. The hound chased the deer. The deer was chased by 
the hound. Feathers protect birds. Birds are protected by feath- 
ers. She was dressed in mourning. He hates everybody, and is 
hated by everybody. 

Moods. [rences. 

Indicative. The indicative mood expresses actual occur- 
Subjunctive. The subjunctive mood expresses mere sup- 
positions or future contingencies. (Explain.) 
Potential. The potential mood expresses what may, can, 

must, might, could, would, or should take place. 
Imperative. The imperative mood expresses commands or 
injunctions. 

Indicative. Subjunctive. Potential, Imperative. 

I am writing. If I were writing. I may write. Write. 

You returned. Had you returned. You might have returned. Return. 

You will return. If you return. You must return. Return. 

He is wise. If he were wise. He should be wise. Be wise. 

It is raining. It rained. It will rain. The boat is here. If 
the boat were here. The boat may come. The passengers were 
drowned. The passengers might have been drowned. Had the 
passengers been drowned. Take care that you be not too late. 
You must go. Go instantly. I bought the horse. If I buy the 
horse. I can buy the horse. Buy the horse, and ride him. 

In what mood is am writing ? what does it express ? Why is were writing 
in the subjunctive mood ? (And so on.) 



40 ORAL COURSE. 

Tenses. 

Present. The present tense denotes simply present time. 

Present-perfect. The present-perfect tense denotes present 

completion. 
Past. The past tense denotes simply past time. [tion. 

Past-perfect. The past-perfect tense denotes past comple- 
Future. The future tense denotes simply future time. 
Future-perfect. The future-perfect tense denotes future 

completion. 

Past Time. Present Time. Future Time. 

I wrote. I write. I shall write. 

I had written (sign). I have written. I shall have written. 

He did write. He does write. He will write. 

He had written. He has written. He will have written. 

The rose blooms. The rose bloomed. The rose will bloom. 
The rose has bloomed. The rose had bloomed. The rose will 
have bloomed. The work may have been finished. The work 
might have been finished. The cars did not come. Do you know 
him ? We shall go to the city to-morrow. 

What is the sign of the present-perfect tense ? — of the past-perfect tense ? — 
of the future tense ? — of the future-perfect tense ? Blooms means when ? Does 
have bloomed denote completion ? and when ? Blooms is a vert) in the present 
tense, because it denotes present time. 

Thoughts can be expressed in two styles, — the com- 
mon and the solemn. The solemn style may generally be 
known by thou or ye, or the ending th or eth. In each of 
these styles, the verb can be expressed in three forms. 

Forms of the Tenses. 

Simple. The simple form is the simplest form of the tense. 

Emphatic. The emphatic form expresses emphasis with do 

or did. 
Progressive. The progressive form represents the act as 

in progress. 

Simple Form. Emphatic Form. Progressive Form. 

I write. I do write. I am writing. 

I wrote. I did write. I was writing. 

Thou writest. Thou dost write. Thou art writing. 

Thou wrotest. Thou didst write. Thou wast writing. 



INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 41 



He drinks. He is drinking. He drinketh. Thou saidst so. 
He fled. We were walking. You might have been studying. I 
do believe it. I shall listen. I shall be listening. They went. 

Person and Number. 

The verb varies in form according to the person and 
number of its subject. 

Mention the verb, and tell of what person and number it is : — 

He writes. They write. Thou writest. He is writing. They 
are writing. Thou art writing. I am. Thou art. He is. We 
are. He was. They were. He has come. They have come. 

Of what person and number is the subject ? The verb is of the same. 

Phrases are sometimes used as verbs. 

You will be laughed at. They were written to. I was aimed at. 
We were sent for. He was listened to. Necessaries can not be 
dispensed with. He was made fun of 

Will be laughed would not make sense without at ; and for laughed at the 
single word ridiculed could be substituted; therefore will be laughed at is hut 
one verb. 

Adverbs. 
Words. 

Many of the single words used in sentences are adverbs. Say what 
the following adverbs express, and to what they relate : — 

Shut the door gently. The horse stands yonder. The man is 
here. The oak lives long. Jonquils bloom early. The paper 
comes weekly. He endured the pain patiently and uncomplainingly. 
She reads well. The duck immediately dived quickly \ under. 
The peaches are very beautiful and remarkably good. He is 
always cheerful. You will soon be treated more | harshly \ there. 

Changes. — Comparison. See Adjectives, p. 36. 

John reads well; Mary reads better; and Henry reads best. 
She studies much; we study more; but Henry studies most. He 
went far ; I went farther ; but you went farthest. I went soon ; 
but they went sooner. 

Phrases are often used as adverbs. 

We played in the meadow. The deer ran into the woods. The 
army marched round the hill. The cascade tumbled from rock to 
rock. Tea is brought from China. He remained till morning. A 



42 ORAL COURSE. 

great storm arbse after sunset. Melons grow on vines. Far below 
those icy peaks the vales in summer beauty bloom. The family 
emigrated from Spam \ to Cuba, \ during the last century. He is 
competent to teach French. (As to what ?) 
Where? Whither? Whence? When? How long? 

Clauses are often used as adverbs. 

He came before the sun rose. We shall have peace, after we 
have subdued the enemy. We traveled through dim paths, till the 
day drew to its close. We caught the minnows where the water 
ripples over the rocks. He remains wherever he finds good company. 
While you are young, be studious ; and when you are old, you will 
be wise. She is as industrious as a bee among flowers \is~\. (How 
industrious ?) He has more money than he can spend. 

He came when 7 We caught the minnows where 7 More, to what extent ? 



We have now presented that general analysis of language which is 
recognized among all enlightened nations as the best yet discovered for 
practical popular use. We have also endeavored to present this analy- 
sis, especially in the last ten pages, with all the help of a new, simple, 
and philosophical system. The intelligent teacher can readily see that 
parsing is but an examination of a word according to the various 
changes which belong to its class of words. She may therefore now 
show her pupils how to parse the following sentences, according to the 
order and detail of changes just given under each of the principal parts 
of speech. Before the general parsing is commenced, the sentence may 
be analyzed ; and each word, at the close of its parsing, may be disposed 
of according to the outline of syntax given in Section VII. 

A white cloud trailed its shadow over the fields. 
California is a mountainous and picturesque State. 
The roots of education are bitter, but the fruit is sweet. 
Flowers and dew-drops shone everywhere among the 
grass. 

SECTION IX. 

The combining of words, and larger elements, to make sentences, 
has been variously presented by authors; but the following is the 
simplest comprehensive scheme that suggest itself to us. 



INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 43 



Sentence-Making. 

To express thoughts well and promptly, it is necessary that we 
should possess as large a stock of words and syntax as possible. 
Dexterity in practice depends directly on our amount of knowl- 
edge and our command over it. It is therefore well to take a 
brief and comprehensive view of the various ways in which words, 
phrases, and clauses are combined, or of the principal sentence- 
machinery. We generally express our thoughts as we naturally 
think them. That of which we think or speak is naturally first 
in the mind; and therefore it is generally first presented. To 
this we add, either before or after, all the descriptive words, 
phrases, and clauses, that belong to it ; as, " The boy," " The 
little boy," " The little boy from the country," " The little boy 
from the country, who was here yesterday." Having thus obtained 
the subject, we next put down, in like manner, what is said of it; 
as, " wept," " wept bitterly," " wept bitterly for a long time," 
"wept bitterly for a long time because he could not find his 
father." " The little boy from the country, who was here yester- 
day, wept bitterly for a long time because he could not find his 
father." From this sentence it is obvious that we naturally first 
present the subject, then the predicate ; adding to each, or rather 
including with each, the various qualities or secondary ideas which 
enter into the thought. We do not, however, always arrange our 
words in this way ; but we sometimes put down first that which is 
first or most thought of, even if it is not the object itself of which 
we are speaking. " The whole shelf of china fell down with such 
clattering and breaking as startled us all." In an occurrence of 
this kind, the fall is naturally the most impressive part ; and there- 
fore we would probably say, " Down fell the whole shelf of china, 
with such clattering and breaking as startled us all." Sometimes, 
especially when there is a large group of elements or circum- 
stances, and there is danger of huddling them together in con- 
fusion, some of the elements are sent out in advance, and others 
are distributed here and there, so as to make the most orderly and 
effective procession of all the parts ; as, " In the early settlement 
of Missouri, a small group of emigrants, mostly from Virginia, 
settled on this creek, a few miles below an Indian village." 



44 oral COURSE. 

We have many different thoughts, made up of many different 
ideas, and hence there are many different sentences ; but the parts 
of nearly all the different sentences that can be made, answer to 
some of the following questions : — 



Which one ? 
How many ? 
Of what kind ? 



Subject, 

Who? 
What? 



Predicate. 

Is what ? 

Does what ? 

Has what done to it ? 



When? Where? 
How? Why? 
As to what ? 
In what degree ? 



Let us now make and examine sentences accordingly. 

SUBJECT. 
Simplest Form. Who 1 What 1 

Columbus discovered America. Galile'o invented the telescope. 
Capt. John Smith colonized Virginia. The Romans destroyed 
Jerusalem. Washington is called the father of our country. The 
Mayor did not sign the bill. Herbert is a good boy. 

Iron is the most useful metal. Wealth is not the greatest bless- 
ing. A pen may be more dangerous than a sword. Poplars grow 
rapidly. Beauty is a perishing flower. Winning inspires courage. 
Lies have short legs. Sighs, tears, and groans were there. 

To err is human. To have learned so beautiful an art, will be 
ever a pleasure. To be talking when you should be acting, is folly. 

That he escaped uninjured, is something remarkable. Whether 
you will stand highest, must depend on yourself. How it came here, 
is a mystery. Will it pay ? is the question. 

(Make similar sentences.) God. David. Bonaparte. Wil" 
Ham. Indians. Sun. Crowd. Regiment. Wisdom. Fighting. 
Forests. To be poor. 

Which one! 

This tree is an oak. That tree is an elm. Yonder farm 
belongs to me. The first man was shot. The last squadron had 
arrived. The youngest child is a daughter. The eldest son is 
in the army. Mary's book is torn. Albert's books are new. 
Your cap fits me. My neighbor's horses ran away. The river 
Hudson is in New York. The poet Cowper lived at Olney, in 
England. The steamship Arctic was wrecked at sea. David, 
the son of Jesse, became king of Israel. The tree dead at the top 
was first cut down. The apple highest on the tree is not always 
the best. The elm before the house must be a thousand years old. 



INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 45 

The paling around the garden cost a hundred dollars. The field 
below the hill is sometimes overflowed. The hills beyond the river 
are blue and beautiful. The house erected by the church is a 
parsonage. The trees planted along the river grow most rapidly. 
The lines written by Coleridge are the most beautiful in the collec- 
tion. The man who sits next to the speaker, is the president. The 
sum which was collected last Sunday, has already been expended. 
The evil about which you have said so much, has been often 
noticed. 

How many? 

Seven men were wounded. A thousand soldiers make a 
regiment. Twenty-Jive carriages followed the hearse. Only one 
person was seen in the canoe. More men could not be obtained. 

Of what kind 1 

A terrible storm passed over the city. A beautiful lake lay 
in front of the house. Silvery clouds fringed the horizon. Iron 
railing is the most durable. Small and beautiful flowers hung 
from the rocks. Clearer evidence never was obtained. Bolder 
measures were immediately adopted. People more proud and 
poor than they can hardly be found. The coolest shade, the 
brightest water, and the most delightful music made our picnic 
excursion very agreeable. Prancing steeds and shining hel-* 
mets appeared in the distance. A Coifs revolver was in his belt. 
A hunter's rifle was the only gun we had. Isabella, a pious 
and noble queen, assisted Columbus. Collins, a poet of the most 
delicate sensibilities, died in the prime of life. A ship of the 
largest size was sunk by this rifled cannon. No stronger vessel, 
made entirely of wood, ever went to sea. A man of good habits, 
generally enjoys good health. The feathers of geese and ducks 
are used for beds. A person, governed by his inclinations only, is 
apt to be fickle. A lady, admired and praised for her beauty, is 
apt to become vain. Plants reared in cellars are seldom strong. 
A smiling young lady, very neatly and becomingly dressed, came to 
the door. A dinner to suit the occasion was prepared. A rail- 
road to connect the two cities is already under contract. The man 
who does not keep his word, should not be trusted. The trees 
which are of the smallest size, generally grow on high places. A 
young man that is negligent will make an old man that is poor. 



46 ORAL COURSE. 

There arose about this time, from the lower ranks of the people, a 
man named Cromwell, \ of incredible depth of understanding, strict 
integrity, and unwavering resolution, | who with one hand held suc- 
cessfully the reins of civil authority, and with the other hurled victori- 
ously the thunderbolts of war. 

{Enlarge the following statements, by supplying suitable adjuncts, 
or modifiers, from the next paragraph.} Clouds began to gather. 
Bird flew away. Moon was shining. Frog hopped along the 
grass. Bees returned to their hive. Road must be mended. 
Lion is animal. 

The, a, dark, heavy with rain, of a leaden color, our, Mary's, beautiful, 
the minstrel of the grove, liberated from his cage, which had been singing 
at my window, the queen of the night, bright, full, large, green, croaking, 
laden with honey, murmuring, rejoicing, to the city, to be used, from the 
village to the river, old, new, African, fierce, exhibited yesterday, large, in 
the cage, subdued, that can not always be trusted. 

If the teacher will examine the sentences on the last two pages, she can 
readily see that the subject-nominatives are clothed with all the different adjec- 
tive modifiers which nouns can have, — articles, adjectives, possessives, apposi- 
tives, prepositional phrases, participial phrases, infinitive phrases, relative 
clauses, etc. By means of proper questions and explanations on the part of the 
teacher, these sentences can be made very instructive to pupils. 

PEEDICATE. 

Is what! 

Life is short. Time is precious. War is ruinous. Pinks are 
fragrant. Farmers are generally industrious. Tomatoes are 
wholesome. Tomatoes are red or yellow. The pine-apple is sweet 
and juicy. The cat is a useful animal. John is an idle boy. The 
turkey is a native of America. The eagle is a bird of great power. 
The home of the brave is the home of the free. Hope is the blossom 
of happiness. Wisdom is a greater treasure than riches. 

Express the foregoing sentences in past time ; fyen in future time. 

(Make similar sentences.} Snow. Blood. The horse. Silver. 
The path. The field. The meadows. Peaches. The Missis- 
sippi. 

Does what! 

The lamb plays. The eagle soars. Cars run. Bears growl 
and bite. The horse gallops. My head aches. James is gather- 
ing hazel-nuts. Mary is paring apples. These islands produce 
spices. Caesar fought many battles. You have made an enemy 
of him. George gave me a piece of his apple. Weakest fruit 



INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 47 

drops soonest to the ground. The more mildly I spoke, the more 
insolently he answered. 

(Make similar sentences.) Bees. The pigeons. Our dog. A 
fox. The wind. The whip-poor-will. Crickets and grasshoppers. 

Has what done to it! 

The glass is broken. The door was shut. The earth is illu- 
minated by the sun. The book was sent by mail. The stranger 
was bitten by the dog. The field had been reaped. The meat 
will be cooked in a few hours. The cargo was landed. The 
bells were rung. The treasures of the pirates were buried on 
an island. The house was torn down by workmen. Our apples 
must be gathered next week. The book is well printed and 
bound. Most people are easily deceived by fair appearances. 

(Make similar sentences.) Streets. Robbers. Leaves. The 
snow. The floor. My boots. Your coat. The house and the 
inclosure. 

When! How long! How often! 

Words. — Come soon. I called afterwards. I have never seen 
him. Now read. He has always been in debt. Let us start 
early. Our bird singg daily. 

Phrases* — Come after dinner. He visits us every day. I go 
to school in the morning. The robber was hanged before noon, 
about ten o'clock. It rained since midnight. 

Clauses* — Come after you have learned your lesson. Remain 
till I return. We often deceive ourselves while we try to deceive 
others. When wolf eats wolf there is nothing else in the woods to 
eat. We used to go to bed at nine o'clock, when we lived in the 
country. My heart dilated with honest pride, as I recalled to 
mind the stern yet amiable character of our Revolutionary fathers. 

(Enlarge so as to make similar sentences.) He came home. 
Lightning struck the barn. The sun is most powerful. She was 
quite young. 

Where! Whence! Whither! How far! 

Words. — Come here. Move farther. I called there. Yonder 
comes your father. I found no amusement amjwhere. He lives 
above. Let us go home. 

Phrases. — Come to me. He visits us at home. We went into 
the country. There is a railroad across the Isthmus of Darien. 



48 ORAL COURSE. 

Have you made a fire in my room ? On the banks of the Ganges 
we can see the ebony in bloom. The murdered traveler's bones 
were found far \ down a narrow glen. 

Clauses. — Come where I can talk with you. The eagles built 
their nest where no one could climb to it. Where honesty takes root, 
the blessing of God makes it a tree. Wherever there is honey, you 
will also find bees. As far as we went, there was nothing but 
desolation. 

(Enlarge so as to make similar sentences.) The cat went. The 
pigeons flew. A path leads. Children sleep. I stood. We re- 
mained. She was buried. The army marched. The stone rolled. 

How? 

Words. — Move briskly. I knocked gently. The boatmen 
sang merrily. He walks heavily. Did your goods sell well ? He 
went away rejoicing. The procession moved slowly and solemnly. 

Phrases. — It rained in torrents. She dresses after the Spanish 
fashion. It was sent according to your direction. Pearls are ob- 
tained by diving. We keep without remorse what we acquire with- 
out crime. Half the people in the world live at the expense of the 
other half. Speak more distinctly. Here comes the body of Caesar, 
mourned by Mark Antony. The Assyrian came down like the wolf 
m the fold. 

Clauses. — She behaved as every modest young lady should be- 
have. The honest man speaks as he thinks ; the flatterer, as others 
like to hear. As you work, so shall you thrive. The storm howled 
and tore as if it would uproot the forest altogether. 

(Enlarge so as to make similar sentences.) The bees work. 
The river flows. The bells tolled. The wild geese are returning. 
March comes. The sun went down. She drooped. The can- 
nons flashed. Every charger neighed. Try. 

Why! By what means 1 For what purpose 1 
Words. — Therefore I went. Wherefore did you not write? 
Hence we parted. And so he died. Consequently I did not hear 
from him. We should eat to live, not live to eat. 

Phrases. — She died of grief The soldiers perished from 
hunger and thirst. He went for pleasure. Every tree is known 
by its fruit. Birds are distinguished by their songs. He is toiling 
for a better home. The accident happened through carelessness. 



INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 49 

The corn is sprouting in spite of the cold, (Insufficient cause to 
prevent.) I want to buy books. He called to see you. I came to 
bury Cozsar, not to praise him. Knowing his circumstances, I sent 
him the money. Believing him to be guilty, the judge imprisoned 
him. A storm rising, we cast anchor. 

Clauses. — He feels very much dejected, for he can not find 
employment. I sent for the doctor, because the child was very sick. 
Since you will have it so, I will go with you. Live virtuously, that 
you may be happy. He sold a part of his property, lest he should 
be involved in debt. 

(Enlarge so as to make similar sentences.) She laughed. The 
clerk was dismissed. He went home. The child was bitten. 
Ripe grapes are known. I will write to him. 

As to what! 

Words. — She is ashamed to dance. I am unwilling to go. It 
is fair to see. Gold is heavy to get, and light to hold. 

Phrases. — She has not the courage to speak to him. He is 
poor in money, but rich in knowledge. I am fond of strawberries 
and raspberries. I paid the bookseller for the books. He is indo- 
lent about every thing. He is unable to pay his debts. 

Clauses. — I consent that you go, and see him. I feared lest I 
should lose it. I am glad that we have peace again, I am convinced 
that you are right. 

(Enlarge so as to make similar sentences.) You are not afraid. 
They are uneasy. I am confident. She felt grieved. 

In what degree 1 Degree is not usually expressed by a set of 
peculiar elements, but rather as a modification of the elements we have 
already given. 

Make sentences by selecting nominatives and verbs from the first two 
groups of words , and then adding suitable modifiers from the lower groups: — 

Boy, horse, lark, ground, ^ ( Break, climb, drive, eat, 
girl, mouse, man, rocket, >• •< hide, lead, rise, sing, shoot, 
water, we, they, grass. ) (sleep, swing, grow. 

Make your sentences according to the general formula onp, 44. 



Bad, the, a, strong, frightened, 
shining, in the meadow, our, 
your, who has been sick, many, 
luxuriant, hissing, without a 
hat, before us. 

4 



' Pitcher, carelessly, horses, to the 
pasture, tree, to rob a bird's nest, 
corn, behind the ceiling, into the 
sky, from fear, where the ground 
is moist. 



50 ORAL COURSE. 

Propositions, or Simple Sentences, combined. 

Our thoughts consist of propositions, either single or com- 
bined. Propositions are combined in many different senses. The 
following are the principal modes of combining them. 

Addition. 

The coffee was good, and the rolls were excellent. I was alone, 
and the night was stormy. That boy is very studious, and he is 
loved by all his classmates. The rivulet rested clear as crystal in 
the rocky urn, and large blue violets hung over the surrounding 
moss. 

Contrariety. 

He is a small man, but he is very strong. We started early, 
but we came an hour too late. He is stout and. healthy in appear- 
ance, yet he has always been sickly. We lost the battle, notwith- 
standing we did our utmost to win it. Although he is accused, yet 
he is innocent. 

Alternation, or Choice. 

I will either send you my horse, or you may hire one at my ex- 
pense. Neither spend your money before you have it, nor buy what 
you do not need. Either he will hate the one* and love the other ; 
or else he will hold to the one, and despise the other. 

Cause. 

This field must be productive, because the soil is fertile. I 
refused his present, for I knew he offered it from selfish motives. 
He is angry ; therefore let him alone. Since we can not enjoy this 
world long, is it not strange that most people are so very avari- 
cious ? 

Sometimes a sentence consists of a combination of differently 
connected propositions ; as, " Great men undertake great things, 
because they are themselves great ; but fools undertake them, because 
they think them easy. (Cause and contrariety.) 

Condition. 

If I were in your place, I would join the army. Would you 
go, if you should be invited ? If there were no evil listeners, 
there would be no evil talkers. So it answers the purpose, it will 
matter little bow indifferent it is. 



INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 51 

No Connective expressed. 

When no connective is expressed, the connecting sense is gen- 
erally that of and, for, but, if, or that is. 

The woods are hushed, the waters rest. Every age has its 
pleasures ; every situation has its charms. It is not too late : it is 
only nine o'clock. He who renders a service, should forget it ; he 
who receives it, should remember it. That concerns you, does it 
not ? Would you thrive ? rise at five. (If you would thrive, etc.) 
Had he done his duty, he would not now be in disgrace. 

Make one sentence, and use the conjunction : — 

And. The trees are budding. The birds are singing. 

As. You have come for me. I think I should go. 

As . . . as. He is talented. She is beautiful. [virtues. 

Although . . . yet. Ambition is a vice. It is the mother of many 

Because. Trifles console us. Trifles afflict us. 

But. We like to ask advice. We do not like to follow it. 

Either . . . or. The disease will kill you. The doctor will kill you. 

For. I cherish his memory. I knew and loved him. 

If, Lies could choke him. He would have died long ago. 

Neither . . . nor. We do not all we can. We do not all we wish. 

Not only . . . but also. He is brave. He is cautious. 

Nor. I am not acquainted with him. I do not wish to be. 

Or. You must look where it is. You can not find it. 

Since. He has done that. Let him take care of himself. 

So . . . that. It has rained long. The country is flooded. 

That. He unbarred the door. His prisoner might escape. 

Than. Never act otherwise. You advise others to act. 

Though. Sin may please. Repentance stings. Though — yet. 

Unless. Do not show your teeth. You can bite. 

Yet. He is very liberal. He has but few real friends. 



Criticisms. 

The mastery of a language is acquired by much reading and studying, by 
much writing and speaking, and by constant and rigid self-examination ; in other 
words, by analysis, by synthesis, and by correcting or improving whatever is 
wrong or not the best. Errors arise either from an illiterate state of the mind, 
or from inattention or forgetfulness in regard to those exceptions which belong 
to the great analogies or general principles of language. The following criti- 
cisms and suggestions are designed to cleanse away the most common popular 
errors. The teacher should manufacture from these pages such examples for 
correction as her pupils need, or are in the habit of using. — See Kerl's " Com- 
mon-school Grammar," pp. 276-310. 



52 ORAL COURSE. 

Do not say ware for were, ben for been, Mate for bleat, plase for 
please, dreen for drain, keow for cow, sfe?/ for sky, toon for Ztme, 
institoot for institute, Toosday for Tuesday, sassy for saucy, rench 
for Wnse, 7*w/' for /ioq/J nt/" for roq/J MZZ for whole, nawthing for 
nothing, only for cm/?/, /am for /earn, thar for £7*eYe, w&ar for where, 
chaw for c/iezc, pay-rent or pdrrent for parent. Do not say /SnZ for 
yoinf, joInZ for point, spiled for spoiled, git for <;eZ, sic/i for swc/i, ?/fs- 
turday for yesterday, sheer for scare, /ttf or /es£ for /w5^, s/ic^ for 
shut, gulne for going, mornin for morning, shinin for shining, borry 
for borroic, widder for ividow, winder for window, hostile for hostile, 
genuine for genuine, sofa for .so/a, Americay for America, Canader 
for Canada, planner for piano, plazzur for piazza, pararie for 
prairie, Injun for Indian, tremenjus for tremendous. Do not say 
£ep for £epZ, s/cp for s/c/tf, ncss for ncste, Ziss for Zisfc, Zen^A for 
length, strenth for strength, srub for shrub, sred for sftreo 7 , sne& for 
shriek, chile for c/w'Za 7 , goverment for government, wuss for worse, hoss 
for Aorse, spec for expect or speculation, hickry for hickory, particlar 
for particular, spose for suppose, attacted for attacked, drownded for 
drowned, bursted for owrs£, breihring for brethren, mountaineous for 
mountainous, preventative for preventive. Do not say t'-oJee or i-de-ar 
for £aY-a, difficulty for difficulty, Indus' try for industry, hospit'al 
for hospital. 

Do not say growed for #rew, ihrowed for ^rew, knowed for £new, 
freezed for froze, seed for sate, disremember for forget, unbeknown for 
unknown, sparrow-grass for asparagus, a licking for a beating, knocked 
under for yielded, gassing or spinning yarns for telling stories. 
Do not use such words as happify, transmogrify, cahoot, honeyfogle, 
highfalutin. Do not call a Aorse a 5eas£, a slattern a sZw£, a gentle- 
man a feller, or a rowdy a oncA;. Do not call a jtnece of bread a 
chunk of bread ; nor say a thing is ridiculous, when your idea is, 
that it is wrong or wean. Do not say hadn't ought for owyfa nof, 
/iaJ 7iai;e AacZ for 7iaaJ Aaa 7 , #0* Za #eZ or #c«Z Za #o for mwsZ #eZ or mws£ 
#0, Zc </eZ sAeZ a/ for Za ^ref roc? c/, m a bad fix for m a cad condition, 
ary one or nary one for ei77ier or neither. Do not say a #reaZ ways, 
a Zi«Ze ways, a ^reaZ dfeaZ, somewheres, nowheres, anywheres, for a 
</rea£ z^ay or Zon# distance, a little way or s7iorZ distance, much, some- 
where, nowhere, anywhere. Avoid very extravagant language ; and 
do not say awful-looking, amazing glad, mighty little, great big, a 
nation deal or a nation sight bigger, for ill-looking, very glad, very 



INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 53 

little, very large, much larger. Do not speak of doing things a heap 
for doing things much. Do not say the school takes up for begins ; 
nor say used up for worn out or destroyed ; nor picked up for de- 
ceived ; nor cracked up for praised or represented ; nor fixed up for 
repaired, dressed, or ready. 

Do not say aint or eeraJ for awi not, is not, are not. I'm not ; not, 
I aint or I eent : I haven't ; not, I heent or ZiaiW : He has not or 
hasn't; not, He Aanf. Do not say them books, them boys, them 
birds, etc., for those books, those boys, those birds. Are those two 
fellows to go with us (not, them two fellows) ? Those are my senti- 
ments (not, them is). Do not say this here, that there, for this, that. 
That house cost a fortune (not, that there house). She is a poor 
widow (not, widow woman). Where is he? not, Where is he at? 
Two may love each other ; more than two, one another. We say 
either, of two ; any, of more than two. Divided between two, 
among more than two. People like food, drink, and dress ; they 
love God, parents, and friends. Teachers teach, and pupils learn. 
We lay things, and then they lie ; we set things, or they sit or fit 
well ; but we ourselves sit. I lay — laid — have laid the book on 
the table ; and it lies — lay — has lain there. I did — saw — was 

— might have gone ; not, done — seen — been — might have went. 

Do not say yourn, hern, hissen, ourn, theirn, nor write your's, 
her's, our's, her's, (heir's, for yours, hers, his, ours, theirs. We didn't 
find anybody at home (not, nobody) . She will never grow taller 
(not, no taller). Shall or should, not will or would, for an effect 
produced on the speaker, for what is beyond his control, or for 
what depends on another's will. I shall be glad to see you. We 
shall suffer from cold. I should like to go. I shall be drowned ; 
nobody will help me. I wish I were at home (not, was). Avoid 
frequent repetition of you know, that's so, that's a fact, indeed, "yes, 
indeed." Said I to him (not, says). Three and two are five 
(not, is). Our peaches are nearly all gone (not, is). There are 

— were — have been two or three of us; not, is — was — has been. 

(Correct the following sentences.) It taint no use. Have you 
got a knife ? You hadn't ought to go. Hadn't there ought to be 
something done? I seen him. He done it. She's went home. 
The river is froze over. The house was shook. It teent so. I 
didn't do nothing. I will never do so no more. Go into the 



54 ORAL COURSE. 

setting-room. I says to him, she's got lots o' tin. After laying a 
while, he raised up. Lay down. 

Whom did you see ? Whom is it for ? not, icho. John and / 
went (not, me). You and she must sweep (not, her). Who swept 
the floor? We girls (not, us girls). &/*<?, and / (not, her and me) 
are very busy. It is or was /, you, he, or she. It wasn't I (not, 
me). I knew it was he (not, him). Boys throw stones, not rocks. 
Between you and me (not, 7). It weighs five tons (not, ton). It 
is three miles (not, mile) farther. I paid two shillings apiece (not, 
two shilling). I don't like that kind of people (not, those kind). I 
have been waiting these two hours (not, this two hours). I live at 
home (not, to home). Do not guess too often, nor always reckon 
or calculate. I intend to go : not, I reckon on going. I expect to he 
there ; not, I calculate to be there. I guess it rained ; not, I expect 
it rained. I intended to write (not, to have ivritten). The horse 
drank the water (not, drunk). He has drunk the water (not, has 
drank). Do not say icorser, beautifuller, fright fullest, for worse, 
more beautiful, most frightful. The younger of two (not, the young- 
est). It is better than any other (not, the best of any other). She 
looks beautiful in her new silk dress (not, beautifully). I feel com- 
fortable (not, comfortably). Run quickly to the house (not, quick). 
This is lovelier or more lovely (not, more lovelier). 

Avoid Irish brogue, Dutch brogue, French brogue, negro slang, 
and backwoods slang. Avoid, indeed, every species of low ex- 
pression, and especially profane language, which is always more 
disgraceful than emphatic. 

Do not use too many words, nor too few. Always be very care- 
ful to select the most appropriate words ; pronounce them cor- 
rectly ; spell them correctly ; and combine them properly in 
sentences. 

From the last few pages the teacher should manufacture suitable sen- 
tences, and have them corrected. Thus : Is it right to say, " Give me them 
books " ? What should I say ? Is it right to say, " Where is them boys 
going"? What should I say? Is it correct to say, " Will I bring in the 
tay"? 



The teacher should carefully watch the language of her pupils ; and not 
only enrich their vocabulary with the most appropriate expressions when they 
are at a loss, but, whenever she hears a mistake, have it corrected on the spot. 
It is better for her to do this than for us to present here a large quantity of low 
slang, which many pupils would probably never think of, did they not first see 
it printed in their books. 



INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITION. 55 

Letters for Beginners. 

&A& 'iutAAeA. yo.€i fio. came €a> ttA. tt4- &&o*t ctA. ^o-tt can. e^jrleaAG 
£a oowie; c/ecil <=&run,£; anci &£iy ivitA t€& tt€€ wiclAei, €& &et= 
fel. <-£/ *>.■*».*/ **A walcl /tit ££& 9te<K<t <ma.t€ iv-AetAeb wo>ti cart 
ocme, unci in/Lett iue ma,™ ectfiec€ wate* 

C/ifiattl &j£27 ec &<o>*ict,tG niece; 

Boston, June 1, 1870. 
Bear Charles, — 

I have just been talking with father about going off fishing 
with you to-morrow, down the Bay. But father says he can not spare me to- 
morrow ; as he has some work for me to do, and several errands. I regret very 
much that I must stay at home ; but I hope you will have a pleasant time, ana 
catch plenty offish. Send us a mess. 

Your friend, 

Henry Arnold. 

[Write an answer, describing your day's amusement and success : and con- 
clude by saying that you will send some of the fish early in the morning.] 

Springfield, Mo., May 3, 1870. 
Cousin Herbert, — 

Mother said last night that you and I are of the same age, 
or that I am but a day older than you. To-day is my birthday, and a happy 
day it is. I hope yours will be as pleasant to you. 

I have now been going to school three years ; and I like to go very well, for 
we learn so many things there, and have so much fun. Last month I was pro- 
moted to the second division of the B Class, where we have begun to study 
grammar, and to write short letters. If you can write letters too, I hope you 
will send one as soon as you can to 

Your cousin, 

John Scott. 

Highland Academy, June 6, 1870. 
My dear Parents, — 

I have been intending to write to you for two weeks ; but it 
seems so irksome to write a letter. To-day Mr. Henderson, our old neighbor , 
called at our school, and said he wished to see me. You can hardly believe how 
glad I was to see him. It seemed to me as if I had met one of our own family. 
I was glad to hear that you are all well ; and I was much pleased with the mes- 
sage you sent, — that I might come home next Friday, and stay a week. Many 
thanks to you, my dear parents, for all your love and kindness. 

Martha Sterling. 

Riverview Academy, June 16, 1870. 
My dearest Sister, — 

This morning we attended the funeral of one of our class- 
mates. He was the best and brightest boy in school, and the best friend I ever 
had. It seems so strange that he should be no more, — that I shall never see 
him again on earth .' When I think of our rambles in the woods, and of the 
pleasant times we had in studying together, it seems almost impossible to believe 
that he is dead. Poor, dear Herbert ! little knowest thou, perhaps, what sor- 
rowful hearts thou hast left behind ! All day, dear Charlotte, I have felt so sad 



56 INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITION. 

that it seems to me I would also be willing to be laid in the grave ,* and this life 
seems indeed a strange and vain thing to me. 

Your affectionate brother, 

Thomas Linsley. 
Dear Emma, — 

While Bridget was putting things in order yesterday, she found 
that old music-book. Somebody had carried it up stairs, and it had fallen 
down behind the bureau. If you ivill come to our house this week, I will sing 
that song for you, and play those pieces. I shall be glad to see you any day. 

Yours truly, 

Alice Norton. 

[Answer by saying that it will afford you great pleasure to hear the music, 
and state when you will come.] 

Subjects for Letters. 

A describes the close of his school, and examination-day, to his uncle. 

B describes the first steamboat he saw, and his impressions. 

C describes his new home in the West, to a friend in the East. 

D invites a friend in the city to visit him in the country — the beauties of 
the country described. (It is spring or autumn.) 

E invites a friend in the country, to spend a month with him in the city — 
city amusements described. (It is winter.) 

F humorously describes a change of cooks in her mother's family. The last 
cook was " fat and forty," and rough as a polar bear. All wine, brandy, 
and delicacies, designed for sauce or dessert, vanished under her guardian 
care. F has herself turned Bridget; she begins to like housekeeping, 
and recommends the " accomplishment " to her friend. 

G describes a fright produced by a ghost story, and explains what caused 
the whole thing. 

H describes a return home after five years' absence — the changes. 

I now lives in a newly rented house, which he describes to an elder and 
absent brother. 

J has caught young squirrels, and offers one to a friend. 

K describes a severe and destructive storm. 

L invites his friend to spend next Saturday with him. 

M tells how St. Patrick's Day was celebrated in his city. 

describes a sleigh ride, the company, the country, the accidents. 

P describes a day's journey and an abominable hotel. 

Q gives an account of a man who made a fortune by a lucky lottery ticket, 
but lived so afterwards that it proved his ruin. 

R describes her father's beautiful garden. 

S describes a picnic excursion. 

T describes a museum, circus, or concert. 

U writes a letter of sympathy, to a friend that has lost her mother. 

V describes a favorite dog or other pet. 

W describes the sports of winter, — skating and coasting. 
X writes to a friend, for the loan of a favorite book. 

Y forgets his umbrella at a tavern, and writes to the landlord. 

Z, having lost his father, writes a grateful letter to his teacher, regrets that he 
must quit school, and sends for his books. 
&&* Teach the proper form of letters.-— See Keri's Composition and Rhetoric. 



TEXT OOXJESE. 



A Language is a system of sounds or signs for 
expressing thoughts. 
Language is either spoken or written. 

The one is addressed to the ear ; the other, to the eye* 

Every cultivated language has its grammar. 

Grammar is the science which treats of the laws 
and forms of language. 

English Grammar treats of the laws and forms of 
the English language, so as to teach us how to speak 
and write it correctly. 

Grammar, as taught in our schools, is such an 
analysis of language, and examination of its parts, as 
may guide the student to correctness in his own choice 
and combination of words. The basis^of grammar, 
or the standard to which the science is referred, is 
simply the usage of the best writers and speakers. 

Language may be divided into words and sentences ; 
and grammar, accordingly, treats of words and sentences. 

Questions. — What is Language ? What two kinds of language are there ? 
What does every cultivated language have ? What is Grammar ? What is En- 
glish Grammar? What is grammar, as taught in our schools? WTiat is the 
basis of grammar ? Into what may language be divided ? and of what two 
classes of subjects does grammar treat ? 

WORDS. 

Words have sound, form, and meaning. 
Pronunciation treats of the sound of words. 
Orthography treats of the form of words. 
Etymology treats of the derivation and primitive 
meaning of words. 57 



58 TEXT COURSE. 

PRONUNCIATION AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Oral and Written Elements. 

Pronunciation begins with the oral elements. 

Orthography begins with the written elements, which 
represent the oral elements, and are called letters. 

A Letter is a character that denotes one or more of 
the elementary sounds of language. 

The English language contains about forty element- 
ary sounds, which are represented by twenty-six let- 
ters, called the alphabet. 

Modern Analysis and Classification. 
Voice, divided into Vocals, which are represented by Vowels. 
Ale, at, art, all, me, met, pine, pin, old, odd, move, use, us, out, oil. 
M ■ , '. . ,. A Vocal Articulates > which are rep- 

ArttculaUon, consisting o/j A8pira te Articulates \ > consonants. 

Bob, did, gig, juAge, loll, mum, nun, ring, roar, then, vat, wet, ye, zone, azure (zh). 
Pop, tit, kick, chip, (ivanting), thin, fat, whet, he, since, shut. 

We have breath, voice, and articulation. Pure breath is represented by 
the letter h. The organs of speech, which are the lips, teeth, tongue, and 
palate, receive the voice, as it comes up from the larynx, and convert it into 
words. The contacts, or closings, made by the organs of speech, constitute 
articulation, which is more or less tinctured either with voice or with breath. 

Ancient Classification. 

( Voxels ! a, c, i, o, u, w = u, and y = i. 

Sometimes combined into — 
Letters J Dipllth0Xig3 ; as, ai, au, ay, ea, ee, ei, eu, ey, oi, oo, ou. 
Triphthongs ; as, eau, ieu, iew 9 uoy. 

f Mutes : b, p ; d, t ; fc, q, c hard, and g hard. 

rnn«nn<int<2 Semivowels : /', h, j, I, m, n, r, s f v, x, z, 

y uuiiauiiojus* j c eoft^ g 60 ft t an( j w an( j y beginning a vowel 

sound. 
„ Liquids : l 9 m, n, r ; and probably s and z. 

The letters are divided into vowels and consonants. 
A Vowel is a letter that denotes simply voice. 
A Consonant is a letter that can be fully pronounced 
only with a vowel sound. 

A Diphthong is a union of two vowels to denote one sound. 
A Triphthong is a union of three vowels to denote one sound. 
Diphthongs are divided into proper and improper. 
A proper diphthong has both its vowels sounded, or both 
represent a sound different from that of either ; as, oi 9 ou. 



WORDS — LETTERS. 5d 

An improper diphthong has only one of its vowels sounded ; 
as, ea, oa. 

Triphthongs are also divided, like diphthongs, into proper 
and improper. 

A Vocal Consonant lias voice blended with it ; as, b. 

An Aspirate Consonant is voiceless ; as, p. 

A Mute stops the voice, or very nearly ; as, dip. [as, dim. 

A Semivowel stops the voice, yet has considerable after-sound ; 

A Liquid denotes a soft, flowing sound, that easily blends with 
most other sounds. The liquids are I, m, n, r ; also s and z, which 
are sometimes called sibilants. * 

A silent letter is one that is not pronounced ; as, four. 

Equivalents are letters or combinations that have the same 
sound ; as, ea and ee in steal and steel. 

Some letters represent several sounds each ; as, a. 

Sometimes different letters represent the same sound ; as, c and k. 

Sometimes two or more letters represent but one sound ; as, ch. 

Hence our alphabet is both defective and redundant ; for a per- 
fect alphabet should have one letter, and only one, for every simple 
sound. 

W or y is a consonant when a vowel sound follows it in the 
same syllable ; as, way, yet. W and y are vowels when equiva- 
lent to the vowels u and i ; as, cow, ery. 

X is equivalent to ks, gz, or z ; as in tar, exact, Xerxes. 

The name of a letter is what it is called in the alphabet. The 
power of a letter is its effect in a word, or the sound or sounds 
which it represents. Some letters have several powers each. 

Questions. — What three things must be attended to in studying words? 
What is said of Pronunciation ? Of Orthography ? Of Etymology ? What is 
a letter ? Into what two great classes are the letters divided? What is a vowel ? 
What is a consonant? What is a diphthong? What is a triphthong ? Which 
are the liquids ? and why are they so called ? What is a silent letter ? What is 
said of w and yl 

Forms of the Letters. 
The letters are used in different styles ; as, Roman, 
Italic, Gfflu/it, and #ltr (Sttglfejj. 

The letters are printed in types of various sizes : — 

Great Primer, Sma11 Pica > Minion - 

^ , . , ' Long Primer, Nonpareil, 

EngllSh, B is> Agate, 

-Q* o ' Pearl, 

-t ICQ;, Brevier, Diamond, 



60 TEXT COURSE. 

The letters are used either as capital letters or as 
lower-case or small letters. 

Capital Letters. 
Capital Letters are used for distinction. 
A capital letter should begin,— 

1. The first word of every sentence or its equivalent. 

2. The first word of whatever is separately paragraphed, 

or is presented as a distinct and important saying. 

a. The word that, of a resolution or enactment. 

3. The first word of every quotation or illustration, 

when given as if said by another person. 

4. The first word of every line of poetry. 

5. Every word or title denoting the Deity. 

a. A word that merely relates to a word denoting the Deity, does not 
usually require a capital. 

6. Every proper noun, or each chief word of a proper 

noun ; and every title, whether used alone or in 
connection with a proper noun. 

The foregoing rule includes also — 

The names of the days of the week ; as, Thursday. 

The names of holidays ; as, the Fourth of July. 

The names of months ; as, April. 

The names of religious sects ; as, the Baptists. [crats. 

The names of clubs, societies, and political parties ; as, the Demo- 

The names of offices and officers, when specific and titular. 

The names of books, newspapers, magazines, paintings, etc. 

The names of great events in history ; as, the Revolution. 

The names of streets, courts, and " places " ; as, Main Street. 

The names of hotels and public buildings ; as, the City Rail. 

And generally, the names of counties, townships, creeks, hills, etc. 

7. Every word derived from a proper noun, provided 

the word has not taken its place among the com- 
mon words of the language. 

8. The name of an object fully personified. 

9. The chief words of every phrase or sentence used 

as a heading or as a title. 



WORDS — LETTERS. 61 

Chief words are nouns and descriptive adjectives, and sometimes also verbs 
and adverbs. 

10. Any unusually important word, especially when it 

denotes the subject of discourse. 

a. In Advertisements and Notices, the liberty of capitalizing is car- 
ried to a great and almost indefinite extent. 

11. The words I and O should be capitals. 

12. Small letters are preferred in all ordinary writing, 

except where capitals are needed for distinction. 

a. In Old English, most of the nouns, and frequently other impor- 
tant words, begin with capitals. 

j&ir'To learn the precise meaning of a rule by noticing examples that illus- 
trate it; to apply the rule to appropriate examples, so as to feel its force; and to 
use the rule in one's own practice, or in correcting what has not been properly- 
constructed, — will be ever the best, the true method, of learning the principles 
of a language. Let the following examples, which are numbered to suit the 
foregoing rules, be used accordingly. 

E x e r c i s e s. 

1. No, my son ; a life of independence is generally a life of 
virtue. It is that which fits the soul for every generous flight of 
humanity, freedom, and friendship. Do not serenity, health, and 
plenty attend the desire of rising by labor? Lovely, far more 
lovely, is the sturdy gloom of laborious poverty than the fawning 
smile of flattery. 

W. this terrible chasm must be filled up. but how? here is a 
list of the proprietors, choose from the wealthiest, in order that 
the smallest number of citizens may be sacrificed. 

W means wrong ; what follows it should be corrected. 

1. The gunpowder overboard ! Out with the boat. Here. 
W. for Rent or Sale, total, $25. balance, $9.25. 
2* Our citizens have contributed — 

To the support and improvement of schools, $12,275; 
To the building and repairing of bridges, 5,130. 

Pope says, " One truth is clear : Whatever is, is right." 
W. The work is admirably adapted to the use of schools, — 
by thorough and varied exercises ; 
by frequent and complete reviews ; 
by simplicity of terms and arrangement. 
The question, then, will naturally arise, how is the desired im- 
provement to be effected ? 

a. Resolved, That we approve the action of our delegates, etc. 
W. Be it enacted, that, after the 1st of January, 1870, a tax, etc. 

3. Solomon says, " Pride goeth before destruction." Remem- 
ber this ancient maxim : " Know thyself." She called out, " Why 



62 TEXT COURSE. 

did you go?" He answered, No. Stare is often used in a bad 
sense ; as, " The impudent fellow stared at me." 

W. They shouted, " victory ! " Every tongue shall exclaim 
with heartfelt joy, welcome ! welcome ! La Fayette. And, " this 
to me ! " he said. Ah ! that maternal smile, it answers — yes. 
Echo answered, no ! The Bible says, children, obey your parents. 

4. But now the smiles are thicker, 

Wonder what they mean ; 
Faith, he's got the Knicker- 
Bocker Magazine ! — Saxe. 

Wi Believe not each aspersing tongue, 

as most weak people do ; 
but still conclude that story wrong 
which ought not to be true. 

5. The Most High ; the Supreme ; the Infinite One ; Provi- 
dence; Divine Providence; the Son of God; our Lord Jesus 
Christ; the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost. The Hand 
that made us is divine. To Him be the honor and the glory. The 
hope of my spirit turns trembling to Thee. Oh, give relief, and 
Heaven will bless your store. 

W. The holy spirit ; the eternal ; the omnipotent ; our saviour ; 
our creator ; to him who is the friend of the widow and the orphan. 

a. God provides for all his creatures. O thou merciful God ! 
The all-seeing Searcher of our hearts ; great Parent of good ; to 
Him who is man's only friend. 

W. O Lord, Thou Who art merciful and omnipotent, save us. 
They were made by the Wisdom and Goodness of thy Hand. 
The King of Kings, and lord of lords ; the righteous judge of the 
world. 

6. Thomas, Susan, Sunday, June, Alabama ; George Washing- 
ton ; Gen. George Washington ; Amelia B. Welby ; Mrs. Eliza- 
beth B. Browning ; Mr. Brown ; James Brown, Esq. ; Maj. Holt ; 
Dr. Miller ; Sir Isaac Newton ; the Duke of Wellington ; Charles 
the First; Alexander the Great; Queen Elizabeth; the Hon. 
Robert Wells ; a note from the Major. " You are old, Father 
William," the young man replied. So Master Dick went off on 
his travels. The Doctor now heard the approach of clattering 
hoofs. The petty governor of Shiraz has the title of " Flower of 
Courtesy," " Nutmeg of Consolation," and " Rose of Delight." 
The Western States ; the Sandwich Islands ; New Orleans ; San 
Francisco ; Long Island ; Long Island Sound ; the Mountains of 
the Moon ; the Gulf of Mexico ; the Rocky Mountains ; Hudson's 
Bay ; Cape May ; on Walnut Street, near Fifth. The President, 
the Vice-President, the Senate, and the House of Representatives ; 
Daniel Webster, Secretary of State ; the City Council ; the Board 
of Directors of the Southern Bank; the Vigilance Committee; the 
Democracy of New Orleans; the Catholics and the Protestants; 
a Methodist; the Supreme Court; the Navy Department; the 



WORDS — LETTERS. 63 

Auditor of Public Accounts. The guests were entertained by the 

Mayor, at his residence, No. 34, Union Place. 

W. mary, george, march, Saturday, kentucky ; henry 1. gaylor ; 

from capt. Jones ; lord Byron ; Joseph Allen, esq. ; a speech from 

gov. Andrews ; John bull to brother Jonathan ; William Penn 

and the friends; in the last number of the new monthly. 

So many difficulties arise under this sixth rule, that some additional assist- 
ance may be useful. 

When a new proper noun is made from an old one by the ad- 
dition of some common word, the common word generally begins 
also with a capital letter. 

England, New England ; Cambridge, East Cambridge ; Boston, 
South Boston, Boston Neck : Scott, Gen. Scott; Jefferson, Jefferson 
City; Madison, Madison Square; Astor, Astor House; Vernon, 
Mount Vernon; Pike, Pike's Peak; Mexico, the Gulf of Mexico ; 
Britain, the British Channel. 

W. Rhode island; Miller's landing; lower California; Japan 
sea ; Harper's ferry ; Lafayette place ; Hudson's bay ; the bay of 
Honduras; the isthmus of Suez; lake Erie; cape Ann; mount 
Auburn ; Cook's inlet ; Behring's strait ; the strait of Magellan ; 
Queen Charlotte's sound; Faneuil hall; William and Mary's 
college. 

When a common word or phrase of the language is raised to 
the dignity of a proper noun, the word or each principal word 
should begin with a capital letter. 

The Park ; Salt River ; Great Bear Lake ; Lake Superior ; the 
Black Sea ; Big Sandy ; Land's End ; the Cape of Good Hope ; 
the United States ; the Southern States ; the Old South Church ; 
the Oriental Bank ; a book called — The Temple of Truth. 

W. The laurel hills ; the dead sea ; white river ; sandy hook ; 
a hill called cedar crest ; the lake of the woods ; point lookout ; 
the five points; pea ridge; the white sulphur springs; central 
park ; on fifth avenue, between waverley place and eighth street ; 
from the common, to the dry dock. 

First carefully consider whether the term has the force of a' 
proper noun or of a title, then ascertain how much makes the 
name or title, and use capitals accordingly. 

7. Columbia, American, Roman, Jesuit, Christian, Scotchman. 
He is the Cicero of his age. A Southern man is from the South. 
A guinea, sandwiches, damask, daguerrotype, china-ware. 

W. Several Spaniards joined the italian army. Some of these 
northerners settled in Florida. She is considerably frenchified. 
He is a man of Colossal stature. Why are they called Turkeys ? 

8. The Wind and the Sun loved the Rose, 

But the Rose loved but one ; 
For who recks the wind where it blows, 
Or loves not the sun ? — Bulwer. 



64 TEXT COURSE. 

W. I hate when vice can bolt her arguments, 

And virtue has no tongue to check her pride. [gether 

Pride, poverty, and fashion once undertook to keep house to- 

9. Episcopal Innovation ; or, the Test of Modern Orthodoxy 
in Eighty-seven Questions, imposed as Articles of Faith, upon 
Candidates for Licenses and Holy Orders, in the Diocese of Peter- 

W. 
borough ; with a Distinct answer to each question, and general re- 
flections relative to their illegal structure and pernicious tendency. 

— Sydney Smith. 

10. The Reform Bill ; the Missouri Compromise. " Educa- 
tion is the great business of the Institute." — Holmes. " The 
other member of the Committee was the Rev. Mr. Butters, who 
was to make the prayers before the Exercises of the Exhibition." 

— Id. On the flag was this motto : " The Union, the Constitution, 
and the enforcement of the Laws. — H. Clay." Begin your letter 
thus : Dear Sir, Dear Brother, My dear Aunt, etc. 

a. Advertisement. — Just published. A Collection of 
Songs, Duets, Trios, and Choruses. Together with a New and 
Complete Course of Elementary Instruction, and Lessons in Sing- 
ing, for the School-room and the Social Circle. Price 75 cents. 

W. My dear friend. She wrote on education. The tax bill 
has not yet passed the senate. In the provincial congress of Mas- 
sachusetts, several eulogies were delivered on the puritans. 

11. But I will not forsake thee, O friend of my youth. 

W. Did i not see you ? Such, o music ! is thy heavenly power. 

12. Spring and autumn are generally the most pleasant seasons 
of the year. 

W. These Birds go South in Winter, but return in Spring or 
Summer. The author of the Task was a good Poet. Some of the 
Bottom Prairies of the Missouri are six miles long. There dwelt 
a Sage called discipline. Some of these welsh Emigrants were 
zealous christians. The Blood of those who have Fallen at Bun- 
ker hill, cries aloud, " it is time to part." This Swamp was called 
the shades of death, by the Sufferers from Wyoming. 

The examples in this last paragraph also serve for miscellaneous exercises. 

When I speak of the Company or the Convention, I mean to guard 
you against thinking of the wrong one, or to make you think of a par- 
ticular one. The Insurrection was printed with a capital, only while 
the excitement lasted ; but the Revolution and the Reformation are still 
matters of interest, and retain their capitals. Our Constitution does 
not refer to our health, nor does our State refer to our condition. The 
North, South, East, and West are particular sections of our country; 
and a State, with us, is one of the United States. Spring, summer, 
time, eternity, morning, evening, day, night, and earth, though denoting 
individual objects, are still common words of the language, that admit 
of definition, and therefore are not commenced with capitals. The 



WORDS — LETTERS. 65 

Indian always says, " Great Spirit," or uses both words to denote 
God ; but when Pope wrote, " Thou great First Cause," he used great 
in its ordinary deseriptive sense. When the words god, goddess, deity, 
divinity, etc., are applied to the heathen deities, they do not begin with 
capitals. The word Devil denotes Satan; but a devil may be simply 
a bad person or spirit. Macaulay calls Satan the Tempter, the Evil 
Principle; and he also writes, "the mercenary warriors of the Penin- 
sula," applying the word in a specific sense, or to Spain and Portu- 
gal. If I should use the phrase Old Dominion as a specific substitute 
for Virginia, I would use capital letters ; but if I should merely call 
Goldsmith's Deserted Village Goldsmith's great poem, I would not begin 
the latter words with capitals. We must often judge whether the 
specific or titular sense, or the ordinary meaning of the words, is upper- 
most in the mind, and use capitals or small letters accordingly. Web- 
ster's Speeches refers to a book, or to their title ; while Webster's speeches 
refers simply to the speeches. A chapter in your history refers to your 
life, but a chapter in your History refers to a book. Our Club, Presi- 
dent, Treasurer, and Secretary are such in title as well as in fact. 
The phrases Elegy in a Country Churchyard, Battle of Hohenlinden, 
The Task, are as much the names of particular poems, as John, James, 
and Henry are the names of particular boys. Lord's Day is equivalent 
to Sunday ; and New -Year's Day, the Fourth, Good Friday, or any other 
holiday, is as much a particular day as Sunday, Monday, or any other 
day of the week. Crabbe's Prairie was once Crabbe's prairie ; and Har- 
per's Ferry, Harper's ferry. Sutter's Mill is now a little town, and the 
mill is washed away. Niagara Falls means not merely & fall of water. 
We can see white mountains in almost any mountainous country; but 
the White Mountains are in New Hampshire. The Erie Canal is wholly 
a name ; but the Erie and Ohio canal is understood as being simply the 
canal between Lake Erie and the Ohio river. The city of New York or 
New York city is generally called New York ; but Jersey City needs both 
words to make the name. The Ohio river is as well denoted by the Ohio; 
but the Red River is not called, the Red, for both words are needed to 
make the name. When city, county, or river precedes the proper noun, 
a small letter is used ; but when it follows the proper noun, there is a 
strong tendency to use always a capital letter. 

Italic Letters. 
Italic letters, sometimes small capitals, and some- 
times capitals, are used for emphasis or distinction. 

Headings are nearly always thus distinguished, mostly by capitals; and 
references, at the end of extracts, are nearly always thus distinguished, 
mostly by Italics. — In the common version of the Bible, Italics show what 
words were supplied by the translators. 

Italics are generally used to distinguish foreign 

words among English ; also any words that are spoken 

of merely as being words. 

Quotation-marks (" " or ' ') are also used for distinction. 
5 



66 TEXT COURSE. 

Italics are generally used to distinguish the names 
of boats, ships, newspapers, and magazines. 

Bold- face type, which we were the first to adopt for school-books, in 1858, 
has been since adopted almost universally for such books. 

One line is drawn under a written word, to denote slanting or 
Italic letters ; two lines are drawn under, to denote small capi- 
tals ; and three lines, to denote CAPITALS. 



Draw a waving line under what is to be set in bold-face type. 
Apply the foregoing precepts to the following sentences: — 
Here I reign king, and, to enrage thee more, thy king and lord. 

— Milton. We have petitioned, we have supplicated, we have 
remonstrated, we have PROSTRATED ourselves at the foot 
of the throne. — Patrick Henry. There are no i's in English 
" eyes ; " there's but one p in "peas." — Hood, " How they run ! " 

— " Who run ? " — " The enemy," replied the officer. — " Now God 
be praised ! " said Wolfe ; " I shall die happy ! " — History of 
Canada. He was secretary pro tern. Secretary is a common noun. 
The Neptune sailed yesterday, says the Evening Star. 

W. The ocean queen will sail next Thursday, and the seaman's 
bride next Saturday. Which may be applied to phrases or 
clauses, but that only to nouns or pronouns. Have you the last 
number of Harper's magazine ? Is not this beautiful " She car- 
ries in her hand a rose, and two upon her cheeks " ? My foolish 
heart beats pit-a-pat — sic omnia vincit amor. 

Questions. — In what styles are the letters used? Mention the principal 
sizes of type. What are the two most common kinds of $pe ? For what are 
capital letters used ? Give the first four rules for capital letters, or those which 
relate to first words. What is said of words denoting the Deity? — of proper 
nouns and titles? — of words derived from proper nouns? — of the names of 
personified objects ? — of headings ? — of important words ? — of Advertisements 
and Notices ? — of 7 and 01 — of the small or lower-case letters ? For what are 
Italics used ? Mention the objects which usually require Italic letters. How do 
Italics stand in print? Ans. They lean or slant forward. 

Syllables and Words. 

A Syllable is a letter, or a union of letters, pro- 
nounced as one unbroken sound. 

A syllable must have at least a vowel ; and it may 
extend to a combination of vowels and consonants. 

Ex. — O, on, no, not, notch, au-tumn, breast, stretched, barb'st. 

A Word is a syllable, or a union of syllables, used 
as the sign of an idea. 

Ex. — Man, horse, pink, green, strikes, down, because. 

1, Words are classified according to their syllables. 



WORDS— SYLLABLES. 67 

A monosyllable is a word of one syllable. Act. 

A dissyllable is a word of two syllables. Active. 

A trisyllable is a word of three syllables. Actively. 

A polysyllable is a word of four or more syllables. Activity. 

3. Words are classified according to their formation. 

A primitive word is not formed from another word. Breeze. • 
A derivative word is formed from another word. Breezy. 

A compound word is composed of two or more words. Sea-breeze. 

3. Words are classified according to their use in 
sentences. — See Parts of Speech, p. 16. 

Words of more syllables than one have accent. 

Accent is a greater stress of voice on a certain sylla- 
ble of a word than on the rest. 

Accent sometimes serves to distinguish words that are spelled alike, 

or to show the chief part of the word ; as, " An august' procession in 

the month of Au'-gust , " an en'-trance, to en-trance', a reconsfrwc'tion. 

As emphasis rests on the most significant word in the sentence ; so accent 
generally rests on the most significant syllable of the word, or else it is merely 
euphonic. 

Words of three or more syllables generally have a 
chief accent, called the primary accent; and one or 
more inferior accents, called secondary. 

Ex. — Lu'-mi-na'-ry, an'-te-ce'-dent, in-com'-pre-hen'-si-bil'-i-ty. 

The penult syllable of a word is the second syllable 
from the end ; and the antepenult is the third syllable 
from the end. 

Most words of our language have the chief accent 
either on the penult or else on the antepenult. 

Penult : CW'-quest, at-for'-ney, dis-a-#ree'-ment, Jer-e-wu'-ah. 
Antepenult: Con-fiV-u-al, mu-ta-&*7'i-ty, Je-rw'-sa-lem. 
Some words, mostly compounds, have two accents of nearly equal 
stress; as, a' -men', fare' -well' (interjection), knit' -ting-nee' -die. 

Syllabication is the division of words into syllables. 

1. In dividing words into their syllables, we should 
give to every syllable precisely those letters which the 
correct pronunciation of the word gives to it. 



68 TEXT COURSE. 

2. Words should generally be divided according to 
their prefixes, suffixes, or grammatical endings, if they 
have any ; and compound words should be divided 
into their simple ones. 

Ex. — Re-new, ring-let, great-er, wis-est, ful-ly, boat-swain, ap-a-thy, 
ther-mom-e-ter, prep-o-si-tion, not-with-stand-ing. 

3. A word that has more syllables than one, may be 
divided at the end of a line, but only at the close of a 
syllable. 

The part in either line should consist of at least more letters than 

one, and be of such a nature that it is not likely to be misconceived at 

the first impression. 

Syllabication is so often a matter of perplexity, that we subjoin a more mi- 
nute analysis, which may be omitted at present, but referred to from time to time, 
according as the learner is prompted by inclination or necessity. 

Vowels. — Diphthongs and triphthongs, not severed ; as, loy-al, buoy- 
ant : vowels making different syllables, separated ; as, a-e-ri-al, co-op-e-rate : 
vowels changed to consonants, to their own syllables ; as, un-ion, liq-uid f 
brill-iant. 

Consonants. — Single consonant between two vowels, and not shortening 
the former nor sounded with it, to the latter syllable ; as, re-bet ' , ha-zy, easy : 
shortening the former vowel, or joined to it, to the former syllable ; as, reiZ-el, 
heav-y, fraud-u-lent : mute and liquid, not shortening the syllable preceding, 
joined to the latter ; as, pa-trol : shortening it, separated ; as, cit-ron : 
liquid and mute, blending with former vowel, joined to it ; as, post-age : not 
both blending with former vowel, separated ; as, dan-ger, pas-tor : two 
consonants, in other cases, generally separated ; as, sup-per, mem-ber, mos-sy, 
col-lec-tion, etc. Ch, sh, th, gh, ph, wh, and tch, are regarded as single 
letters ; and tion, sion t cious, tient, etc., as single syllables. 

Exercises. 

Tell whether monosyllable, dissyllable, trisyllable, or polysyllable, and why: — 
Tell whether primitive^ derivative, or compound, and why : — 

Rain, rainbow, depose, deposition, force, reinforcement, tickle, 
heaven, earth, astronomy, Robert, Elizabeth, Newtonian, planting, 
unloading, esquire, govern, constitution, market, apostolical, prefer- 
ence, orthography, artery, sorcery, blackbird, nevertheless, pickle, 
varnish, reformation, western, monkey, reelect, rafter, grafter, 
charter, chanter, waiter, traitor, felony, felonious, active, picture, 
lounger, shilling, siren, national, associate, pronunciation, repre- 
sent, Boston, Diana, Coriolanus. 

Now divide the foregoing words into syllables. 



WORDS — COMP UND. 69 

Compound Words. 

1. Words are compounded when they unite in mean- 
ing as one descriptive term, and also when they make 
a new or permanent name that varies in meaning from 
the separated words. 

Long-eared, red-hot, to-night, rainbow, gooseberry, whip-poor-will. 
" A five-cent savings-bank ; " " blue-eyed, golden-haired Mary." 

2. Compound words are hyphened when first formed 
or but little used ; and also when the parts do not 
coalesce as smoothly as syllables of one word, or 
might be misunderstood. 

Rosy-fingered, ant-hill, pine-apple, see-saw, a go-between. 

3. Compound words are consolidated as they come 
into general or familiar use, provided the parts 
coalesce like the syllables of one word and under one 
chief accent. 

Statesman, salesman, steamboat, railroad, inkstand, nobleman, 
homesickness, bookseller, notwithstanding. 

Errors in regard to compound words are so common, and dictionaries are 
so unreliable, that we subjoin a more minute analysis, which may be carefully 
examined now, and referred to afterwards when needed. 

Correct whatever follows the star : — 

Compounded. — One idea rather than two ; a different meaning from 
that of the separated words : Horse-fly, orang-outang, gooseberry, to- 
night; * to morrow, straw berry, twenty five, touch me not (a flower), 
some forget me nots. A phrase made an adjective: The tree-and-eloud- 
shadowed river ; * a life and death struggle. A familiar term for a 
particular object : Apple-orchard, boarding-house, white-oak ; * black 
berry, humming bird, spelling book, ice house. Imitative words made of 
rhyming or otherwise musical elements : Picnic, sing-song, helter-skelter ; 
* hodge podge, wishy washy, linsey woolsey. Foreign phrases not yet 
altogether anglicized: Piano-forte, camera-obscura ; *concavo convex, 
electro magnetism. Change in the part of speech : The end-all and the 
be-all, a setting-forth of; * a run away, a looker on, many flowered, a 
clearing away of. A word qualifying the word next to it, yet liable to be 
referred to the word beyond: A light-armed soldier, battle-hymns and 
dirges ; * the deep tangled wildwood, a white washed house, some four 
footed animals, the Artificial Teeth Company, New York Directory. 

XJncompounded. — A mere or temporary adjective, or noun so used — 
especially when equivalent to the adjunct beginning with of : A gold ring = 
a ring of gold, Malaga wine; * common-sense, a brick-wall. Capitalized 
phrases made proper nouns: Long Island, Hudson's Bay, St. John's 



70 TEXT COURSE. 

College ; * New- York, Prince-EdwardVIsland. Idiomatic phrases, and 
phrases whose meaning is kept clear by their syntax : By and by, a carefully 
selected assortment ; * tit-for-tat, ill requited love, love ill-requited. An 
dement making compounds with two or more others before it, to show its com- 
mon reference — or else it must be compounded with each : Riding and dan- 
cing schools, or, riding-schools and dancing-schools ; his son and daughter 
in law, or, his son-in-law and daughter-in-law ; the clock and watch 
repairing business ; * Seed and Feed-Store ; covered with fresh water 
and land-shells. 

Hyphened, — Prefixes before capital letters: Anti-American, Neo- 
Platonic ; * pre Adamite. Prefixes not uniting fluently in sound with what 
they are joined to, or liable to have their meaning lost: Vice-president, semi- 
cylindrical, re-collect (to collect again); ^counterrevolution, reformation 
(a new formation), co-operate (or else, cooperate). Elements coming in 
contact with letters liable to be confounded : Ant-hill, one-eyed, chain-shot; 
* pineapple, snowshoe, milestone, middleaged. 

Consolidated. — Generally, prefixes with what they are joined to : Re- 
construct, tmcfergraduate; * pre-possession, under-rate. Most compound 
words used as adverbs, prepositions, or conjunctions : Everywhere, upon, 
notwithstanding ; * any-where, here-by. Frequently, compounds when 
again compounded: Quarter-master, quartermaster-general. Elements 
yielding their accents to a new and chief accent : Blackberry, from black 
and ber'ry ; * book-seller, run-away. Compounds newly formed or but 
little used, generally require the hyphen ; but by long and general use they tend 
to drop it : " Steamboats and railroads have driven all the romance out of 
travel." — Irving. 

o 

A crow is a black bird, but not a blackbird. A dog's-ear is the corner 
of a leaf turned over ; but a dog's ear is the ear of a dog. A sugar tree 
is made of sugar ; but a sugar-tree is a maple that yields sugar. A glass 
house is made of glass ; but a glass-house is a house in which glass is 
manufactured. Many colored birds are not necessarily many -colored 
birds ; nor is a live oak a live-oak. A dancing master is simply a master 
that dances ; but a dancing-master teaches dancing. A pale blue violet is 
a blue violet that has become pale, but a pale-blue violet is naturally, or 
always, of a pale-blue color. Hence we should write, " dark-blue ocean ; " 
not, " dark blue ocean." 

Questions. — What is a syllable? What is a word? In what three ways 
are words classified ? What is a monosyllable ? — a dissyllable ? — a trisyllable ? 
— a polysyllable? — a primitive word? — a derivative word? — a compound 
word ? What words have accent ? What is accent ? What kinds of accent are 
there? Which is the penult syllable of a word? — the antepenult? What is 
syllabication? What three rules are given for dividing words into syllables? 
When are words compounded ? — when hyphened ? — when consolidated ? 

Spelling. 

Spelling is the art of expressing words by their right 
letters, properly arranged. This art must be learned 
chiefly from spelling-books, dictionaries, and observa- 
tion in reading. 



WORDS— SPELLING. 71 

1. Doubling the Final Consonant. 

Words of one syllable, ending in a single consonant 
preceded by a single vowel ; and words of more sylla- 
bles, ending in the same way, with the accent fixed on 
the last syllable, — double the consonant, before a 
vowel in the derivative word. 

Sac/, sadder, saddest; rebel', rebelled, rebellion; rob, robber; win, 
winning; top, foppish; drum, drummer; up, upper; quiz, quired. 

Ill other cases, no doubling takes place. 

Seal, sealed; gild, gilded; infe?*', (infe/red,) inference; bigot, big- 
oted ; ta#, taxed. X final = two consonants, ks or gz. 

There is a difference between robed and robbed, planing and planning, hater and hatter. 

Good writers sometimes double /, contrary to the Rule above. 

" Traveler." — Prescott, Bryant; "marvelous," "caro/Zed. — 
Irving. 

2. Final Y. 

Y final, preceded by a consonant and followed by 
any letter except z, is changed into i, in the derivative 
word. 

Fly, flies ; glory, glones, glor%, glorified, glorifying, glorification ; 
try, trial; hob/, holier, holiest; merry, merrily, merriment, pity, pitia- 
ble ; ivy, ivied. 

Exceptions: The derivatives of sly, dry, and shy ; slyly, dryly, shyness. 

Y final, preceded by a vowel, or followed by t 7 remains 
unchanged in the derivative word. 

Chimney, chimneys ; gay, gayer, gayest, gayety ; cry, cried, crying, crier ; 

buoy, buoyant ; destroy, destroyer ; annoy, annoyance ; joy, joyful, [checked. 

Exceptions: Pay, paid; said, laid, daily; staid (remained), stayed 

3. Filial E. 

E final, when silent, is rejected before a vowel in the 
derivative word. But it is retained when heeded to 
keep c or g soft, or to preserve the identity of the word. 

Bite, biting ; force, forcible; sale, salable; rogue, roguish. 
Agree, agreeable ; peace, peaceable ; tinge, tingeing ; glue, gluey. 
There is a difference between dying and dyeing, singing and singeing. 

Words ending with ie change i into y, before i, to prevent the doub- 
ling of i; as, die, dying ; vie, vying ; tie, tying ; lie, lying. 



72 - TEXT COURSE. 

E final is retained before a consonant in the deriva- 
tive word. Sometimes it is rejected, when not needed. 

Base, baseless ; rue, rueful ; definite, definitely ; eye, eyelet ; whole, 
wholesome, but wholly. Due, duly ; true, truly ; awe, awful; judge, judg- 
ment. D softens the g, and renders the e unnecessary. 

4. Equivalents. 

Equivalents should be carefully noticed, because from them arise most 
of the errors in spelling. The most common equivalents are a long and 
ai ; ee,ea, ei, and ie; ou and ow ; i and y ; c and s; c and ch; g and j ; 
tion and sion; tious and ciousj the single consonant and the double. 
Sometimes very ludicrous blunders are found in regard to words pro- 
nounced alike but spelled differently. A grocer once put out some 
empty barrels, with this placard, "All these barrels for sail, at 10 
o'clock." A wag came along, and wrote underneath, " For freight and 
passage, apply at the bung-hole." 

5. Contraction, in spelling, is the omission of some 
letter or letters from a word, by putting an apostrophe 
in place of what is omitted. 

E'er, ever ; o'er, over ; 'gainst, against ; o'clock, of the clock. 

Sometimes two or more words are contracted into one, and the parts 
combined are occasionally changed in spelling. 'Tis or it's is used for 
it is ; won't, for mill not ; Vd, for / would or / had. 

The omission of letters is called elision ; the omission of words, 
ellipsis. The different kinds of elision, and some other peculiarities of 
spelling, have been called figures of orthography. The chief of these 
are aphe/esis, an omission from the beginning of a word, as 'gainst for 
against; apoc'ope, an omission from the end, as mom for morning, o f 
for of; syn'cope, an omission from the middle, as red'ning for reddening ; 
prosthesis, an addition to the beginning of a word, as adown for down; 
parago'ge, an addition to the end, as Johnny for John ; tme'sis, the part- 
ing of a word by an intervening word, as "on which side soever" for 
" on whichsoever side." 

6. Abbreviation is a short way of writing words, by 
omitting letters, and placing a period at the end of 
the word. Many common words, and most titles, arc 
generally abbreviated. 

Ex. — Jan., January ; Feb., February ; Mch., March ; Apr., April ; 
Aug., August; Sept., September; Oct., October; Nov., November; Dec, 
December ; N., north, new, note, or noun. 



* WORDS— ETYMOLOGY. ?3 

Exercises. 

1, 2, & 3* Swimming, steaming, thinned, learned, airy, starry, 
witticism, laziness, pining, druggist, benefited, acquittal, vexed, 
dreaded, referred, alleys, allies, moneyed, loyalty, relying, daily, 
likelihood, valuable, chargeable, scarred, scared, swinging, prun- 
ing, paroled, patrolled, vying, servilely, traceable, advertisement. 

Let the pupil explain the spelling of each of the foregoing words according 
to some one of the three rules of spelling, given on p. 71. 

4. Bilious, billiards, ballad, salad, ceiling (always cei, never 
cie), receipt, siege, lieu, brier, friar, idiosyncrasy, secrecy, sac- 
charine, cemetery, browse, buccaneers, financier, vicious, vitiate, 
harass, embarrass, impair, compare, separate, operate, extirpate. 

(Correct the following.} He was bread for the church. Hawks 
pray on other birds. The judge immediately baled the prisoner* 
The benches were all in tears. My dear Ant. Cleaning and 
dying done here. The oar was melted. The capital is always 
situated in the capitol. She wore a vale. 

5. Th' or t 9 for the; 'm for am; 'rt, art; 're, are; they're, 

you're, tkou'rt, '70 ; 's, is, us, has ; let's, let us; he's, she's, I'm, I've ; 

'd, had or would ; '11, will; he'll, he will ; I'll, / will ; I'd, / would; 

n't, not; don't, do not ; wont, will not ; cant, can not ; has not, have 

not, would not ; 'tis or it's, it is ; e'en, ev'n, even ; e'er, ever ; ne'er, 

never; o'er, over; 'gan, began; gainst, against; neath, beneath; 

threatening, clustering, saddening. The rank is but the guinea's 

stamp ; the mans the gold for a that. 

Let the pupil explain, in the foregoing, the unexplained contractions; insert 
apostrophes where needed ; contract what is left uncontracted ; and he may also 
make or find sentences in which contractions occur. 

6. (Explain.) N. O., Au^. 1st, '70. Dr. G. W. Persin^er. 
3 cwt. 2 grs. 5 lbs. Wm. Harris & Co., No. 5, Reade St., N.Y. 

Questions. — What is spelling? What rules are given for final conso- 
nants ? What rules for final y 7 What rules for final e ? What is said of equiv- 
alents ? What is said of contraction ? What is said of abbreviation ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 

Prefixes, Suffixes, and Boots, 
A Prefix is a significant syllable, or longer element, 
joined to the beginning of a word, to modify the 
meaning. 

A Suffix is a significant letter, syllable, or longer ele- 
ment, joined to the end of a word, to modify the 
meaning. 

A Root is the chief part of a word, or that part 
which receives the prefix or suffix. A root may be 



74 TEXT COURSE. 

either a primitive word of the language, or a word 
from a foreign language. 

In the word replant, plant is a primitive word and the root ; re is the 
prefix, and it makes the word mean, to plant again. In the word 
planter, er is the suffix, and it makes the word denote one who plants. 
In the word accurate, the root is the Latin word cura, care ; and hence 
accurate implies the bestowing of care on something. 

Derivative words are formed from primitives or 
roots, by means of prefixes or suffixes ; and compound 
words are formed by uniting primitives or derivatives. 

Some of the different prefixes have the same mean- 
ing, and so have many of the different suffixes ; the 
choice being determined not merely by the meaning, 
but also by euphony and analogy. 

We say " generous/' " un-generous," but " accurate," " in-accurate ; " 
" confess," " confess-iow," but " acknowledge," " acknowledg-me/tf;" and 
either " de-throne " or " im-throne." 

In making derivative or compound words, it fre- 
quently happens that some of the parts must be altered 
for the sake of euphony or analogy. Hence there oc- 
curs sometimes a change, an omission, or an insertion 
of some letter or letters. The last letter of the prefix 
must often be the same as the first letter of the root. 

Ex. — Con-lect, col-lect; dis-fer, differ; in-moderate, im-moderate ; 

con-operate, co-operate ; dis-vulge, di-vulge; a- archy, an archy ; mucilage- 

ous, mucilag-in-ous. 

Questions* — What is a prefix? — a suffix? — a root? Give illustrations. 
How are words formed ? What is said of the meaning of different prefixes or 
suflixes ? What is said of changes in spelling ? 

Exercises. 

Mention the prefixes, suffixes, and roots, and explain them : — 
Dispose, predispose, exposure, imposition, protract, contractor, 
extract, attract, attractive, attraction, evolve, revolve, convolution, 
unconsciousness, complicated, circumference, extension, retrospect, 
inspector, transmit, import, export, productions. 



THE MEANINGS OF WORDS. 75 



The Meanings of Words. 

The meaning of a word is what the word denotes or suggests ; and 
since words are less numerous than things, almost every word is 
applied to a number of things ; or is made the sign of a class. Things 
of the same kind have the same name ; things that resemble have gen- 
erally the same name ; things that are related have frequently the same 
name ; and wherever, in sentences, the single words are inadequate, we 
add modifying words, phrases, or clauses. The meaning of a word is 
simply what custom makes it ; and hence it may vary in the course of 
time. It was once proper to speak of "florid meadows " and of "polite 
surfaces," in stead of "flowery meadows " and "polished surfaces ; " but 
those words are now differently applied. Many words have a simple, 
strong, primitive meaning, from which the other meanings are derived. 
The various extended applications of words, which are designed to make 
language more available and impressive, and which often please by 
their novelty, force, and beauty, are usually called figures. Most of 
the meanings of words, as given in dictionaries, are but faded figures. 

FIGURES. — A figure, as concerned with the meanings of 
words, is simply an imitative use of language ; or else it is a deviation 
from the literal or common meaning of a word, for a new purpose, or 
for the sake of a better expression. 

Onomatopy. Some words suggest by their sound what is meant. 
These are the best words ; and such use of words is called onomat'opy. 
Some of our letter combinations are very suggestive of the meaning. 
There is something decidedly nasal in the sn that begins sneeze, sneer, 
snout, snub, snore, snort, snarl, snuff, snuffle, snicker. Spr or sp implies 
expansion or unfolding; as in spread, sprawl, sprinkle, splutter, sprout, 
and spring. St implies firmness ; as in stout, stand, stool, stump, stay, 
stiff, strut, strong, and stack. Tw frequently suggests doubleness or 
division ; as in two, twin, twain, twig, twine, twist, twice, between, and twi- 
light. Wr implies distortion or twisting; as in wry, writhe, wreathe, 
wrench, wring, and wrong. Final sh, soft ch, or soft g, frequently sug- 
gests the idea of spreading ; as in flash, crush, smash, splash, slush, 
mush, batch, bulge, surge, and dis^or^e. A totter is a trembling step, a 
titter is a tremulous laugh, and a twitter is a tremulous song. It was its 
great stock of such words, and of short words, that enabled the Anglo- 
Saxon tongue to maintain its sovereignty against all invaders. 

Metaphor. Words are often extended in application, on account of 
some resemblance between things. The resemblance may be either in 
the appearance or in the relations ; and the words in their extend- 
ed application are called mefaphors. 1. "The eye of a person." 



76 TEXT COURSE. 

2. " The eye of a horse." 3. " The eye of a fish." 4. " The eye of a 
needle." 5. " A paper of hooks and eyes." 6. " The eye of a potato." 
7. " The sun is the eye of the world." In each of the foregoing 
phrases, the word eye has a different meaning ; hut there is sufficient re- 
semblance to make the applications proper. Our dictionaries abound 
in such metaphors ; as, " a blade of grass," " the blade of a knife ; " 
" a grain of wheat," " a grain of sand," " a grain in weight ; " " rosy 
bower," "rosy cheek," " rosy morn;" "hard stone," "hard lesson," 
" hard heart," "hard life ; " " to sinlc in water," " to sink in reputation," 
" to sink money in business." Poets and similar writers are constantly 
extending language in this way, for it is a part of their art. 

Allegory. Continued metaphor is called al'legory ; or a sketch 

.Personification, that is but a symbol for another more important 
meaning, is an allegory. And when metaphors consist in applying 
human qualities to things not human, the mode of expression is called 
personification, — a kind of expression that awakens more readily 
human interest or sympathy ; as, " Hope enchanting smiled, and waved 
her golden hair." 

Catachresis. Strained and far-fetched metaphor, or an allowable 
incongruity of metaphors, is called catachre'sis ; as, " the speechless 
people of the sea ; " " an ivory wine-glass ; " " to take arms against a 
sea of troubles." 

Synecdoche. Sometimes the name of the whole is applied to a part, 
or that of a part to the whole. A word thus applied is a synee'doche. A 
glass is made from glass, and a cork from cork; while gold is frequently 
applied to money, and fuel to coal or wood only. 

Metonymy. Words are often extended from other relations than 
resemblance or sameness. A word thus applied is called a metonymy. 
The things which most generally receive the same name in this way, are 
cause and effect; container, and thing contained ; sign, and thing signified. 
"A man of good judgment" (faculty), " an error in judgment" (act), 
"a wise judgment " (result); "a bottle of glass," "to drink a bottle" 
(contents); "a crown of gold," "subject to the crown" (king); pro- 
tection, the thing protecting, or the act; formation, the thing formed, or 
the act; passage, the act or the way; cartage, the act or the price; 
house, a building or the people. 

Euphemism. To avoid offense or harshness, words of a milder 

Hyperbole. meaning are sometimes used ; as, " You are mis- 
taken," not, " You are a liar." This mode of expression is called 
eufphemism. And to show our excited feelings better, words of a stronger 
meaning, or exaggerating words, are frequently used ; as, " She was 
fairer than the lily ; " " He was rougher than a bear." This mode of 
expression is called hype/bole. 

Irony. To express scorn more effectually, words of a contrary 
meaning are sometimes used ; as, " He is surely a Solomon," i.e. a fool. 
" When you send out your little ones in cold weather, let their knees be 
bare ; for it is better to get into the consumption than out of the 
fashion." Such use of words is called i'rony. 

The meanings of words are very extensively modified by means of 
prefixes and suffixes. And words are frequently distinguished from 
each other by delicate and refined shades of meaning : such words are 
called syn'onyms. — See Kerf's " Shorter Course, with Etymology." 



DIAGRAMS OF SYNOPSIS. 



77 



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Kl a, £«<«< 



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78 



TEXT COURSE. 




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g*c3 



sarjiadoij 



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position 

ticipial 

nitiare 


1 


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CD 

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c3 
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02 

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Pi 

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•73 



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SENTENCES. 

A Sentence is a thought expressed by a proposition, 
or a union of propositions, followed by a full pause. 

Syntax treats of the classes, changes, and relations 
of words in sentences. 

The classes into which words are divided in sen- 
tences, are called the Parts of Speech. 

There are nine Parts op Speech ; Nouns, Pronouns, 
Articles, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Con- 
junctions, and Interjections. 

Sentences are also divided into principal and subor- 
dinate parts, which consist of words, phrases, and 
clauses. 

From this last division we obtain " Analysis" — a subject that is 
useful in its place, but that is too much, exaggerated in some of the 
school grammars. Analysis is nothing but a generalization and slight 
feitension of common syntax. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

A Noun is a name. 

A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 

The word or term which a pronoun represents, is 

called the antecedent of the pronoun. 

If I say, " John lost his \ book, but he found it again," John and 
book are nouns ; his, he, and it are pronouns ; and John and book are 
the antecedents. Sometimes a phrase or clause is used as a noun. 
(See p. 35.) Indeed, whatever sustains to other words the relation of 
case, must be a noun or pronoun ; and this is the only true definition 
that can be given of these parts of speech. 

Classes. 

Nouns are either proper or common. 

79 



80 TEXT COURSE. 

■A • 

A Proper Noun is the distinctive name appropriated 
to a particular person, object, or group. 

A Common Noun is a significant name common to 
all objects of the same kind. 

A Collective Noun is the name of two or more ob- 
jects taken together. 

An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality, an act, 
or a state. 

The word river carries with it a descriptive meaning, or may be 
applied to any large stream of water, and is therefore a common 
noun ; while Ohio and 3Iississippi are used to distinguish one river 
from another, and these words are therefore proper nouns. (See p. 
32.) The word flock may be used as the name of a collection, without 
being applicable to the single objects, and hence it is a collective noun. 
And when I speak of goodness, sleep, or conduct, these words must 
be abstract nouns ; for they imply that something is abstracted, drawn 
away, or conceived apart, by making a distinction between an object 
and what belongs to it. Phrases and clauses that are used as nouns, 
need not the distinction of proper and common ; though they are com- 
mon nouns, showing what is meant. Collective and abstract nouns 
are nearly always common nouns. 

A proper noun that assumes meaning, becomes a common noun ; as, 
" He is the Cicero of his age," i.e., great orator ; u Some mute, inglori- 
ous Milton," i.e., great poet. A common noun that denotes an object 
in the sense of a proper noun, becomes proper ; as, " the Park" " the* 
Convention ; " Come, gentle Spring." 

Pronouns are divided into four principal classes ; 
personal, relative, interrogative , and adjective. 

1. A Personal Pronoun is one of those pronouns 
which distinguish the grammatical persons. 

2, you, thou, he, she, and it are the leading personal pronouns. 
A Compound Personal Pronoun is a simple pronoun with 

self or selves annexed to it. Myself, ourselves, thyself, yourself 
yourselves, himself herself itself and themselves are the pronouns of 
this class. 

A Double Possessive Personal Pronoun represents both the 
owner and the object possessed, or it is equivalent to two words. 
Mine, thine, ours, yours, hers, and theirs are the pronouns of this 
class. 



SENTENCES. — NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 81 

In the sentence, " I saw you and him," I, you, and him are per- 
sonal pronouns ; for they show which is the speaker, which is the 
person spoken to, and which is the person spoken of. In the sen- 
tence, " That desk is yours and mine," yours and mine are double 
possessive personal pronouns equivalent to your desk and my desk, or 
to your and my property. 

2. A Relative Pronoun is one that stands in close 
relation to an antecedent in the same sentence, and 
joins to it a dependent clause. 

Who, which, what, that, and as are the leading relative pronouns. 

A Compound Relative Pronoun is who, which, or what, with 
ever or soever annexed to it. 

A Double Relative Pronoun represents both itself and its 
antecedent. What, whatever, and whatsoever are the pronouns 
most frequently used in this way. 

In the sentence, " The flowers which bloom early, die early," which is 
a pronoun because it denotes flowers, and it is a relative pronoun because 
it makes sense only when attached to its antecedent. In the sentence, 
" Give what you can spare," what is double in syntax, for that which can 
be substituted for it. 

I 3. An Interrogative Prononn is one used to ask a 
question. 

Who, which, and what are the leading interrogative pronouns. 

The noun or pronoun given in answer to an interrogative pronoun, 
is sometimes called the subsequent; as, " Whom did you see? — John." 

A Responsive Pronoun implies a question, but does not ask 
it. " Who will be sent ? — I can not tell who will be sent." 

Relative Indefinite Pronounso — The same words that are used 
as interrogative pronouns, are also used as responsives. Hence respon- 
sive pronouns are sometimes called indirect interrogatives ; but probably 
the best title for them is Relative Indefinite Pronouns : relative, because 
they always make the clause dependent ; and indefinite, because they 
have the general meaning of indefinite adjective pronouns. Observe 
that the responsive sentence given above has not the same meaning as 
" I can not tell the man who will be sent ; " and therefore the pronouns 
of this class should not be confounded with the common relatives. 

4. An Adjective Pronoun is a common specifying 
adjective used as a pronoun. 

Each, either, neither, this, that, one, other, some, all, and none are 
the most common pronouns of this class. 
6 



82 TEXT COURSE. 

Adjective pronouns may be divided into four classes ; distribu- 
tive, definite, indefinite, and reciprocal. 

1. The Distributive Pronouns relate to objects taken singly. 
They are each, either, and neither. 

2. The Definite Pronouns point out objects definitely. They 
are this, these, that, those, same, former, and latter. 

3. The Indefinite Pronouns relate to objects indefinitely. 
They are one, ones, other, others, any, some, such, all, both, and none. 
Occasionally, a few other specifying adjectives may be called in- 
definite pronouns. 

4. The Reciprocal Pronouns imply reciprocal action or rela- 
tion. They are each other and one another. 

Questions. — What is a Sentence ? Of what does Syntax treat ? Into how 
many and what classes are words divided ? Into what other kinds of parts are 
sentences divided ? What is a Noun ? — a Pronoun ? — the antecedent of a pro- 
noun ? Into what two great classes are nouns divided ? What is a proper noun ? 

— a common? — a collective? — an abstract? Into what chief classes are pro- 
nouns divided ? What is a personal pronoun ? — a relative ? — an interrogative ? 

— an adjective? Mention the kinds of personal pronoansj— of relative pro- 
nouns ; — of adjective pronouns. 

Properties of Nouns and Pronouns. 
Changes. ! 

Nouns and pronouns have genders, persons, numbers, 
and eases. 

What a thing has, or what belongs to it, is its property. Hence 
gender, person, number, and case must be the properties of nouns and 
pronouns, in grammar. Such properties comprise meanings, which in- 
clude also relations ; and these meanings are expressed sometimes by 
different words, sometimes by variations in the word, and sometimes 
they must be gathered from the general sense without the aid of peculiar 
forms to show them. Most errors in grammar arise from mistaking 
kindred forms, and the dependence of words ; therefore changes and rela- 
tions become very important matters in grammar. 

Genders are distinctions with reference to sex. 

There are four genders ; the masculine, feminine, 
common, and neuter. 

The masculine gender denotes males ; the feminine, 
females ; the common, either or both ; and the neuter, 
neither. 



SENTENCES. — NOUNS AND PKONOUNS. 



S3 



Ex. — Boy, masculine ; girl, feminine ; child, common ; booh, neuter. 

The sex of small creatures is sometimes disregarded, and the words 
are then neuter ; as, " A bee left its hive." Masculine terms are some 
times preferred for both sexes ; as, " Here every person must show Ms 
passport." A masculine or feminine term sometimes includes the other 
sex ; as, " There are many wild horses [including mares] on our western 
prairies ; " " We saw geese and ducks in the pond, i.e., ganders and drakes 
too. A collective noun, when the entire collection is regarded as one 
thing, is of the neuter gender. Objects without sex are sometimes per- 
sonified; and they should then be regarded as male or female, according 
as their nature resembles the male or the female character. Thus, Time, 
being predominant over all things, is frequently spoken of as he; and a 
sailor almost invariably speaks of his ship as she, because she is tracta- 
ble, and is the object of his affection. 

Genders are expressed,— 

1. By different words; as, he, she, and it; boy, girl. 

2. By different endings ; as actor, actress ; hero, heroine, 

3. By prefixing a word ; as, Ae-goat, sAe-goat. 

4. And they may always be known by the sense. 

Persons are distinctions with reference to speaker, 
person spoken to, and person or thing spoken of. 

There are three persons ; the first, second, and third. 

The first person denotes the speaker ; the second, the 
person spoken to ; and the third, the person or thing 
spoken of. 

Ex. — /, the speaker; you, the person spoken to; he, the person spoken of. 

The third person is sometimes modestly or elegantly used for the 
first or second ; as, " Let thy servant abide in stead of the lad a bond- 
man to my Lord" i.e., Let me ... to you. A word of the first or 
second person may have an explanatory term of the third person de- 
pending on it ; as, " How could you, a stranger, be so bold ? " "I am 
he; " " Are you sl friend of his ? 

Persons are expressed,— 

1. By the personal pronouns, and by words relating to them. 

2. Most words are in the third person, and this is known by the 

sense. 

Numbers are distinctions with reference to one and 
more than one. 



84 TEXT COURSE. 

m 
There are two numbers, — the singular and the 

plural. 

The singular number denotes one ; the plural, more 

than one. 

Numbers are expressed,— 

1. By different words ; as, 7, we ; is, are. 

2. By vowel changes ; as, man, men ; mouse, mice. 

3. By different endings ; as, ox, oxen ; fox, foxes. 

4. And they may always be known by the sense. 
Some nouns have no plural ; as, gold, pride. 
Some nouns have no singular ; as, clothes, ashes. 

Some nouns and pronouns have the same form for either number ; 

as, sheep, who, you, one or many. 
Some nouns are singular in one sense, and plural in another ; as, 

arm and arms. 
Some nouns have two plurals, but different in meaning; as, 

brother, brothers (of the same family), brethren (of the same 

society). 
Some foreign nouns have their foreign plural and also the English 

plural ; as, criterion, criteria or criterions. 
Most plurals denote individual objects ; as, hat, hats. 
Some plurals denote different kinds ; as, wine, icines. 

The plural is formed from the singular ; as, rat, rats. 
To most nouns, s is annexed ; as, pen, pens. 
To final s, x, z, sh, or soft ch, add es* 
To final i, o, or u, preceded by a consonant, add es. 
To final i, o, or y, preceded by a vowel, add s* 
Change final y, preceded by a consonant, to i, and add es. 
To proper nouns and foreign nouns, add simply s ; or es 9 when s 

will not coalesce in sound. 
Final forfe, of some nouns, is changed into ves. 
Of most compound words, only that part is made plural which is 

described by the rest ; as, ear-rings, brothers-in-law. 
When the title Mr., Miss, or Dr., is used with a name, the whole 

term is made plural by making plural the title only ; as, Mr. 
Harper, Messrs. Harper. 
When the title is Mrs., or when the word tzvo, three, etc., stands 

before the title, the latter noun is made plural ; as, " The Mrs. 

Barlows," " The two Miss Scotts." — Irving. 



SENTENCES. — NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 85 

Most foreign nouns, in our language, retain their foreign plurals. 
The ending a is changed to ce or ata ; us to i ; um or on to a ; is 
to es or ides ; x to ces ; and ex to ices. 

Letters, figures, and other characters are made plural by annex- 
ing 's ; as, " The a's and n's in the first line ; " " By 5's and 7's ; " 
"What mean those 3's and 3's?" The apostrophe is used to 
prevent ambiguity ; thus, " Cross your t's and dot your i's" is not 
the same as " Cross your ts and dot your is." 5s might mean 
5 shillings or 5 times s. 

A collective noun is singular when the entire collection is re- 
garded as one thing ; as, " The army was large," i.e., not each man 
of it was large. A collective noun is plural, when it has the plural 
form, or when the individuals are meant ; as, " The armies were 
large;" "The multitude pursue pleasure," i.e., each one of the 
multitude pursues pleasure. 

The plural pronouns of the first person, we, our, etc., are some- 
times elegantly used by speakers and writers for the singular; as, 
" We believe that prices must fall." 

General Illustrations. — Ball, halls ; atlas, atlases ; loss, losses ; box, 
boxes; topaz, topazes; bush, bushes; coach, coaches; alkali, alkalies; hero, 
heroes; gnu,gnues; cuckoo, cuckoos; story, stories; valley, valleys; Denny, 
Dennys; Dennie, Dermics ; portico, porticos ; Greek, the Greeks; Jones, the 
Joneses; beef, beeves; court-martial, courts-martial; larva, larvae, ; stimulus, 
stimuli; arcanum, arcana; axis, axes; calix, calixes or calices. Many plurals 
are so irregular that it is best to learn the words themselves, just as* difficult 
words must be learned in spelling. We shall include this general circuit of 
plurals in the exercises which follow. 

Cases are distinctions based on the relations of 
nouns and pronouns in sentences. 

There are three cases; the nominative, possessive, 
and objective. 

The nominative case is the form or state of a noun 
or pronoun used as the subject of a predicate-verb. 

The possessive case is the form or state of a noun or 
pronoun that expresses possession. 

The objective case is the form or state of a noun or 
pronoun used as the object of a verb or preposition. 

In the sentence, " We saw him and his horse in the river," we is in 
the nominative case, for it tells who saw ; him, horse, and river are in the 
objective case, for they denote whom and what we saw, and in what; while 



86 



TEXT COURSE. 



his is in the possessive case, for it denotes possession. To find the nom- 
inative, ask a question with who or what before the verb ; to find the 
objective, ask a question with whom or what after the verb or preposition ; 
and the possessive case answers to whose y or it may be known by the 
possessive sign, 's or *. Possession may be past, or future and in- 
tended, as well as present and actual ; as, " Webster's Dictionary ; " 
" Men's boots for sale here." The former example implies origin ; the 
latter, fitness. The definitions which we have given of the cases, are 
incomplete, though sufficient for the present. The difficulty lies in the 
subject itself. To give complete definitions, we should have to present 
here all that is said of cases in the rules of syntax. 

Cases are expressed,— 

1. By different words ; as, I and me. 

2. By different endings ; as, who, whose, and whom. 

3. And they may always be known by the sense. 

The nominative and the objective case of nouns are alike; but 
of pronouns, generally different. 

The possessive case of nouns is formed by annexing to the 
name of the owner an apostrophe, or comma above the line, and 
then the letter s ; as, man, man's ; men, men's. The apostrophe 
only is annexed to plural nouns that end with s ; as, boys, hoys'. 

" For conscience* sake," " For goodness* sake," etc., are idiomatic exceptions. 

Nominatives: /, we, thou, ye, he, she, they, and who. 

Objectives: Me, us, thee, him, her, them, and whom. 

These are the only peculiar nominative forms, and the only peculiar objective 
forms, in our language. Learn them. 

Nona, or Obj.: You, it, which, what, that, none, myself, our- 
selves, yourself, yourselves, himself, herself, itself, themselves. 

Declension. To decline a noun or pronoun is to 
show, in some regular way, what forms it has to ex- 
press its grammatical properties. 



Nouns. 



Pro- 
nouns. 



Singular. 

Nomina- Posses- Objec- 
tive, sive. tive. 

Boy, boy's, boy; 
Man, man's, man ; 

I, my, me ; 



First Person. 

Second Person 

r Masculine. He, his, him; 
Person. \ Feminine. She, her, her ; 



<" Thou, thy, thee ; 
\ You, your, you; 



[ Neuter. It, its, 



Plural. 

Nom- Posses- Objec- 
inative. sive. tive. 

boys, boys', boys, 
men, men's, men. 

we, our, us. 

ye, your, you. 
you, your, you. 

they, their, them. 



it 



SENTENCES. — NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 87 

Relative and Interrogative ) Nom. who, posa. whose, obj. whom. 

Pronoun, Singular or Plural, j Norn, which, poss. whose, obj. which* 

Mine and thine are sometimes used in stead of my and thy, when the 
next word following begins with a vowel sound; as, "mine uncle;" 
" thine eyes." In other situations, mine and thine are double in syntax ; 
also ours, yours, hers, and theirs. One and other are declined like nouns. 
None remains unchanged ; and it is generally plural, sometimes singular. 

Questions. — What properties have nouns and pronouns? What is said 
of genders ? (Recite the coarse print.) How are genders expressed ? What is 
said of persons ? How are the persons expressed ? What is said of numbers * 
How are the numbers expressed ? From what is the plural formed ? What two 
meanings may the plural have ? How are most nouns made plural ? In what 
cases do we annex es 7 How are nouns that end with y, made plural ? What is 
said of final / or fe 7 How are compound nouns made plural ? What is said of 
the titles Mr., Miss, and Dr. 7 What is said of the plural of foreign nouns ? — of 
letters and figures ? — of collective nouns ? Has every noun a plural ? Has every 
noun a singular ? What is said of such words as brother and genius 7 What is 
said ot we 7 What are cases ? How many are there ? Define each. How are 
cases expressed? What is said of the nominative and the objective case, in re- 
gard to form ? How is the possessive case of nouns formed ? Mention the nomi- 
native pronouns ; — the objective pronouns. What is declension ? Decline boy ; 
— man ; — I ; — thou or you ; — he ; — she i — it ; — who. What is said of one 
and other 7 

Exercises. 

A derivative noun may denote a person, a thing, an act, or a 
state 5 and most derivative nouns are formed from verbs, adjec- 
tives, or other nouns. 

Form nouns from the following words as indicated; and spell the words, 
observing the rules for spelling, and making the euphonic changes : — 

Oversee, -r ; farm, -er, hunt, build, teach, preach, speak, 
sing, wait, dig, hat, cot, foreign, island, think, print, ride, 
vote, make, settle, pipe, widow, idle, strange ; visit, -or, 
edit, profess, survive, speculate, create, govern, conquer, 
direct^ conduct, protect, sail, collect, dictate ; conspire, -ator, 
administ(e)r; compete, -itor, compose; auction, -eer, moun- 
tain, sonnet, gazette, pamphlet, chariot ; cash, -ier, cannon, 
cloth, glaze ; save, 4or, pave ; law, -yer, saw ; team, -ster, 
spin, trick, pun, young ; akin to all these are the numerous 
compounds that end with man,— plow, -man, horse, car, 
work, watch, pen, country, sales, fire, milk, foot, sports, 
noble, gentle; poke, -er (thing), steam, shut, boil, knock, 
wrap, grate, heat, strain, fend, read, speak, propel, reap, 
mow, sup, dine (diner and dinner — difference?); dull, -ard, 
slug, lag, witch, tmz-; brag, -r/art, sweet, -heart; mission, 
-ary, note, statue, bound (thing), grain, gran-, dispense; 
refuge, -ee, patent (to whom), assign, consign, commit, 
legate, lease, less--, favor, -ite, Jacob, require, reqnis-; copy, 
-ist, tour, journal, natural, novel, moral, drug, duel, violin, 



88 TEXT COURSE. 

pian-o, botany, eulogy; baptize, -tist, drama; enthusiasm, 
-ast ; operate, -ive, relate, palliate, sedate ; persuade, -sive • 
represent, -ative ; America, -n, Virginia, republic, -an, 
Europe, Kentucky, coined}^, tragedy, library; Christ, ~ian, 
grammar, music, arithmetic, college ; claim, -ant, combat, 
dispute, confide, protest, assist, appeal, ap)pell-\ stud-y, -ent, 
preside, reside, adhere ; oppose, -ponent, depose ; act, -gent, 
reign; receive, -cipient ; suck, -ling, sap, lord, nest, first, 
hire, duck, dump (something " dumped in/' to boil), dear, 
dar-\ man, -ikin ; cover, -let, cut, eye, wave, home, ham-, 
river, rivu-; flower, -et, eagle, mall, table, lance, cask, ball, 
bull-, tower, turr-, song, sonn-. 

Modest, -y, difficult, discover, deliver, flatter, recover, 
embroider, injur-e, assembl-e, master, armor, glutton, villain, 
destin-e, milliner, factor, orator, sorcer, victor, prior, minis- 
ter, ancestor; pedant, -ry y gallant, rival, poet, herald, bigot, 
bake, scene, slave, orange ; brew, -erg, cook, witch, mock, 
buffoon, fish, rook, crock ; loyal, -ty, novel, penal ; null, -ity> 
dense, rare, moral, grave, scarce, fertile, hostile, versatile, 
captive, divine, pure, infirm, opportune, secure, sincere, elas- 
tic, vain, van- ; curious, -osity, sinuous ; lunatic, -acy, pri- 
vate, pirate, accurate, magistrate : secret, -ecy ; infant, -ncy, 
brilliant, current, pliant ; tyrant, -ny ; prophet, -sy, hypo- 
crite ; probable, -bility, fallible, capable, credible ; amiable 
(or, -ness), enviable, -ness, silly, holy, greedy, worth}^, 
naughty, busy, gaudy, cleanly, weary, good, white, bold, 
sweet, foolish, selfish, churlish, useful, cheerful, careless, 
worthless, shallow, hollow, morbid, natural, nervous, sono- 
rous, pensive, corrosive (ness is the chief suffix for convert- 
ing adjectives into their corresponding abstract nouns ; there 
are about 1300 of these abstract nouns in English); invest, 
-merit, punish, agree, case, battle, settle, refresh, conceal, ex- 
cite, refine, retire, manage, employ, govern, amend, nourish ; 
arm, -ament ; complete, -plement ; act, -ion, reflect, protect, 
dissect, inspect, invent, prevent, possess, confess, revise, 
precise, devote, promote, subtract; divide, -sion, expand, 
extend, elude, persuade, deride ; grade, -ation, pulse, found, 
sense, plant, form, tempt, flirt (the ending ion, which 
usually shows itself in the form of tion or sion, is found in 
very many nouns, mostly derived from verbs, and generally 
signifying the act or residi) ; dismiss, -at, deny, propose, 
acquit; partner, -ship, scholar, professor, friend, town, 
horseman; use ; -age, equip, till, hermit, parson, anchor, 



SENTENCES. — NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 89 

leak, assemble ; man, -hood, boy, girl, brother, priest ; duke, 
-dom, earl, thrall, martyr; heathen, -ism, critic, skeptic, 
Jacobin, radical; moist, -ure, seize, legislate, compose ; sign, 
-ature ; nourish, nur- ; concord, -ance, accord, convey, ob- 
serve ; elegant, -nee, defiant ; differ, -enee, precede, inno- 
cent, -nee, resident, insolent, indolent, excellent, dependent, 
omnipotent; draw, -ing, wed, build, meet, paint, write, 
bless, suffer, begin, end. 

JO^ It would be also well for pupils to define the words as they spell them, 
and then make sentences to illustrate their use ; as, Farm-er, one who cultivates 
a farm. " Farmers raise most of our provisions." 

Whether proper or common, and why : — 

Child, Susan, boy, George, country, day, Europe, Satur- 
day, month, September, holiday, Christmas, bird, blackbird, 
parrot, Polly, canal, Missouri, hill, Bunker Hill, chain, 
Jane, Louis, Louisa, Louisiana, state, city, New York, year, 
1870, soil, mind, hope, army ; Mrs. Amelia Welby ; the 
prophet Jonah; cape, Cape Fear. The Neptune left port 
on the 18th, for the Sandwich Islands. The clamor of most 
politicians is but an effort to get the ins out and the outs in. 

Whether collective or abstract, and why : — 

Mankind, manhood, nation, nationality, family, famili- 
arity, populace, popularity, companionship, company, herd, 
crew, multitude, multiplicity, anger, congress, jury, justice, 
armies, conflict. 

Mention the nouns, the pronouns, and the antecedents of the pronouns : — 

The tree has shed its leaves. Liberty has God on her 
side. Let every man take care of himself. John, you, and 
I must learn our lessons. John and James know their 
lessons. Neither John nor James knows his lesson. Henry, 
you must study. And there her brood the partridge led. 
He is rich whose income is more than his expenses. 

Put nouns for the pronouns, and then pronouns for the nouns : — 

John knows his lesson. Mary has lost her bonnet. He 
met her. I saw him and you. He killed the snake. He 
showed them the lesson, that they might learn it. The girl 
went with her father, and the boy went with his mother, 
and they were good children. Who knows who he is ? 
( What person * * # that man, etc.) Bad boys spoil good 
ones. Take what you like. 

Mention the pronouns ; of what kind ; and why : — 

Who saw me go with them into the garden? What 
have you in your basket ? Which is he ? I fear you will 



90 TEXT COURSE. 

hurt yourself. Let us go down the path which leads to 
your house. Whatsoever thy hand hndeth to do, do it with 
all thy might. Give me what is mine. That is he of 
whom I spoke to you ; but I know not the others that came. 

The Gender 9 and why : — 

Girl, seamstress, Harry, Harriet, relative, cousin, person, 

man, woman, duck, gander, robin, snow, slate, he, him, 

hymn, she, hers, it, they, we, I, eye, you, it, its, himself, 

herself, themselves, nations, party, clergy, game, person, 

corpse, corps, angel, spirit, who, which, what; lady's hand ; 

lady's-slipper. Winter comes with icicles jingling at his 

girdle. John is a noun, and she is a pronoun. 

Give the feminine to each masculine term, then the masculine to each femi- 
nine ; or so learn the words that when one is mentioned, you know the other : — 

He, she ; boy, girl ; brother, sister ; beau, belle ; bride- 
groom, bride; bridesman, bridesmaid; bachelor, maid or 
spinster; buck, doe ; hart, roe; stag, hind; bull, coiv ; 
bullock or steer, heifer; colt, filly; drake, duck; father, 
mother; papa, mamma; friar or monk, nun; gander, 
goose ; gentleman, lady (formerly, gentlewoman) ; lord, 
lady ; landlord, landlady ; horse or stallion, mare; sire 
(horse), dam; husband, wife; king, queen; lad, lass; 
male, female ; man, taoman ; master, mistress ; master, 
miss ; nephew, niece ; ram or buck, eive ; sir, madam ; 
monsieur 7 , madame 1 and mademoiselle' ; knight, dame; 
uncle, aunt; wizard, witch; youth, damsel or maiden; 
swain, nymph; sloven, slattern; rooster or cock, hen; 
John, Jane ; Charles, Caroline or Charlotte. 

Abbot, abbess ; actor, actress ; adulterer, adulteress ; 
arbiter, ar'bitress ; bar'on, bar'oness ; embassador, embas'sa- 
dress ; benefactor, benefad tress ; chanter, chantress ; count 
or earl, countess; dau'phin. dau'phiness ; deacon, deaconess; 
duke, duch' 'ess ; emperor, empress; enchant'er, enchant' r ess ; 
founder, foundress ; giant, giantess ; god, goddess ; gov'- 
ernor, gov'erness ; heir, heiress ; host, hostess; huckster, 
huckstress ; hunter, huntress ; instructor, instructress ; in- 
ventor, inventress ; Jew, Jewess ; lion, lioness; marquis, 
mar'chioness ; mayor, mayoress ; negro, negress ; patron, 
patroness ; peer, peeress ; poet, poetess ; priest, priestess ; 
prince, princess ; prior, pri'oress ; prophet, prophetess ; pro- 
tector, protectress ; shep ; herd, shep'herdess ; sor'cerer, sor'- 
ceress ; tiger, tigress ; traitor, traitress ; tutor, tutoress ; 
vis'count, vis' countess ; votary, votaress ; widower, widow ; 



SENTENCES. — NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 91 

waiter, waitress ; administrator, administra'trix ; executor, 
exec'utrix ; testator, testa' tr ix ; he'ro, her'oine ; Joseph, 
Jo'sephvne ; Paul, Pauline ; don, donna ; sign'or, signo'ra ; 
sultan, sidta'na or sul'taness ; czar, czarVna ; Augustus, 
Augusta ; Henry, Henrietta ; Jesse, Jessie ; Louis, Louisa 
or Louise; Julius, Julia or Juliet ; Frank or Francis, 
Frances. School -master, school - mistress ; grandfather, 
grandmother ; step-son, sten-daug liter ; ne&cock, ne&hen. 

He-goat, she-goat; buck-rabbit, doe-rabbit; cock-spar- 
row, hen-sparrow ; bull-calf, cow-calf; man-servant, maid- 
servant ; male descendants, female descendants ; Mr. Rey- 
nolds, Mrs. Reynolds, Miss Reynolds. 

The Person, and why : — 

I, you, he, we, thou, myself, us, thee, yourselves, mine, 
thine, thyself, himself, themselves, it, she, hers, others ; a 
drooping willow ; my dictionary ; your grammar. I am the 
captain, sir. We passengers have poor fare. Then said I 
to him, " Well, my little friend, how fare the school-boys ? " 

Change into the other persons : — 

John writes. The girls study. Henry, you may play. 
I William Ringbolt hold myself responsible. Shall Han- 
nibal compare himself with this half-year captain ? 

The N"umber 9 and why : — 

Tree, trees, partridge, partridges, geese, family, families, 
scissors, ashes, letters, love, swarm, hay, hone}^, molasses, 
orang-outangs ; I, we, you, thou, him, themselves, they, his, 
several, one, ones, none, one another, our, ours, my, a, an, each 
man, either man, every man, neither road, two, a two, two 
twos, a twin, twins, a pair, two pair. Time brings roses. 

Singular and Plural. 

Spell the plural of the singular, or the singular of the plural: — 

Man, men ; woman, women ; child, children ; ox, oxen ; 
foot, feet ; goose, geese ; tooth, teeth ; mouse, mice ; louse, 
lice ; cow, cows or kine ; this, these ; that, those ; I, we ; 
thou, ye ; he, she, or it, they. 

Brother, brothers (of the same family), brethren (of the 
same society); die, dies (stamps for coining), dice (small 
cubes for gaming); fish, fishes (individuals), fish (quantity, 
or the species); genius, geniuses (men of genius), genii 
(spirits); in'dex, in'dexes (tables of reference), in' dices 
(algebraic signs) ; penny, pennies (pieces of money), pence 



92 TEXT COURSE. 

(how much in value) ; staff, staves (sticks — better, staffs), 
staffs, officers ; flagstaff, flagstaff s ; distaff, distaffs. 

Beef, beeves ; calf, calves ; elf, elves ; half, halves ; knife, 
knives ; leaf, leaves ; life, lives ; loaf, loaves ; self, selves ; 
sheaf, sheaves ; shelf, shelves ; . thief, thieves ; wife, wives ; 
wolf, wolves; wharf, wharfs or wharves. Other words 
ending with f or fe> assume merely s : Fife, fifes ; skiff, 
skiffs ; handkerchief, handkerchiefs. 

Caucus, caucuses ; actress, actresses; calico, calicoes ; ver- 
tigo, vertigoes ; torch, torches; monarch, monarchs ; chim- 
ney, chimneys ; fairy, fairies ; German, Germans ; Mus'- 
sulman, Mussulmans ; are'na, arenas or arenas ; form'ula, 
formulae or formulas ; lamina, laminaz ; lar'va, larvae ; 
minu'tia, minutios ; neb'ula, nebulad ; ver'tebra, vertebras ; 
dogma, dogmas; stigma, stigmas; mias'ma, miasmata; 
alum'na, alumnce ; alum'nus, alumni ; fo'cus, fo'cuses or 
foci ; fungus', fungi or funguses ; hippopotamus, hippopot- 
amuses or hippopotami; magus, magi ; nucleus, nuclei 
or nucleuses ; polyp or pol'ypus, polyps or polypi ; ra'dius, 
•radii or radiuses ; stimulus, stimuli ; terminus, termini ; 
tu'mulus, tumuli ; animal'cule or animalculum, animal- 
cules or animal 'add ; arca'num, arca'na ; automaton, au- 
tom'ata or autom'atons ; criterion, crite'ria or crite'rions ; 
da'tum, data ; desideratum, desiderata ; dictum, dicta or 
dictums ; emVvium, efflu'via ; ephem'eron, ephem'era ; 
encomium, encomiums or encomia; ful'crum, fulcrums 
or fulcra ; gymnasium, gymnasia or gymnasiums ; medi- 
um, me'diums or media ; memorandum, memorandums or 
memoranda ; momentum, momen'ta or momentums ; phe- 
nomenon, phenomena; scholium, scho'lia or scholiums ; 
stra'tum, stratums or strata; trape'zium, trapeziums or 
trapezia; vinculum, vincula ; sta'men, stam'ina; ge'nus, 
gen' era ; axis, axes; amanuensis, amanuenses; analysis, 
analyses ; basis, bases ; crisis, crises ; o'asis, o'ases ; thesis, 
the'ses ; pha'sis, pha'ses ; praxis, praxes ; ellip'sis, ellip'ses ; 
emphasis, em' phases ; hypoth'esis, hypoth'eses ; parenthesis, 
par en' theses ; synopsis, synop'ses ; synthesis, syn' theses ; 
appen'dix, appen'dixes or app en 'dices ; apex, a'pexes or api- 
ces ; vertex, ver'texes or ver'tices ; vortex, vor'texes or vor- 
tices ; can'tharis, canthar'ides ; chrysalis, chrysalides ; 
iris, irises or ir'ides ; phalanx, phalanxes or phalan'ges ; 
hia'tus, hiatus or hiatuses ; beau, beaux or beaus ; mon- 
sieur, messieurs ; madame', mesdames ; cherub, cherubs or 



SENTENCES. — NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 93 

cher'ubim ; seraph, seraphs or ser'aphim ; bandit, bandits 
or bandit' ti ; brother-in-law, brothers-in-law ; sister-in-law, 
sisters-in-law ; court-martial, courts-martial ; aid-de-camp, 
aids-de-camp ; billet-doux, billets-doux ; cupful, cupfuls ; 
spoonful, spoonfuls ; man-servant, men-servants ; ignis 
fatuus, ignis fatul ; piano-forte, piano-fortes ; port-mon- 
naie, port-monndies ; Miss Warner, the Misses Warner ; 
Mr. Hunter, the Messrs. Hunter; Dr. Hunter, Drs. Hunter, 
the two Dr. Hunters; Mrs. Hunter, the Mrs. Hunters, 
Mmes. Hunter. 

Canto, cantos ; duodecimo, duodecimos ; fandan'go, fan- 
dangos ; fresco, frescos ; grotto, Qr ottos ; halo, halos ; hi- 
dal'go, hidalgos ; junto, juntos; lasso, lassos ; memento, 
memen'tos ; octa'vo, octavos; pia'no, pianos ; por'tico, porti- 
cos; quarto, quartos; salvo, salvos ; solo, solos; tyro, tyros; 
zero, zeros; virtuo'so, virtuosos or virtuosi; peri ; peris; 
rabbi, rabbis or rabbies. 

Singular. 

Hay, tar, flax, butter, milk, bread, brass, grease, dust, hap- 
piness, eloquence, kindness, love, arithmetic, photography. 

Words like the foregoing denote some kind of substance, attribute, or science, 
universally considered. Such words are sometimes made plural when they 
denote things that are parts or forms of the general object, or pertain to it; 
as, straws, irons, respects, hights, arithmetics. 

Plural. 

Aborigines, annals, antip'odes, archives, ashes, as'sets, 
banns, belles-lettres, billiards, breeches, cattle, dregs, eaves, 
embers, goggles, hose, hysterics, lees, litera'ti, lungs, mani- 
^na'lia, matins, nuptials, nippers, oats, paraphernalia, pinch- 
ers, ple'iads, regalia, riches, remains, scissors, shears, snuf- 
fers, stairs, statistics, stilts, suds, thanks, teens, tongs, 
tidings, trousers, tweezers, victuals, vitals, withers; also 
most of the family names of animals and plants. 

Sometimes such a word may be used in the singular number, to denote apart 
or an individual; as, <; The left lung was diseased." — Dr. Rush. " A mammal." 
— Goldsmith. " A valuable statistic." — U. S. Census. 

Arms, weapons ; clothes, garments ; colors, banner ; com- 
passes, dividers ; dividers, an instrument ; draivers, an 
article of clothing; goods, merchandise; greens, young 
leaves for cooking ; grounds, dregs ; letters, literature ; man- 
ners, heh&viov; morals, morality; shambles, meat-market; 
spectacles, glasses ; stays, a corset ; vespers, evening hymn. 
Singular or Plural. 

Deer ; sheep, swine, vermin, grouse, head (cattle), sail 



94 TEXT COURSE. 

(ship), series, species, corps, apparatus, bellows, gallows, 
means, news, alms, odds, amends, wages, pains (care), ethics, 
mathematics, politics, physics, metaphysics, mechanics, 
glanders, measles, and similar names of sciences or diseases. 

Fish, fowl, perch, trout, and similar words, are sometimes drawn into the 
analogy of deer, sheep, etc. Foot and horse, in the sense of troops, also some- 
times foe and enemy, are drawn into the analogy of infantry, cavalry, army ; 
cannon and shot are sometimes drawn into the same analogy, though the regu- 
lar plurals are also used. Pair, score, brace, dozen, yoke, with a numeral pre- 
ceding, to indicate the number, remain usually unchanged in form; hut the 
regular plurals also occur, as, " by dozens and scores." Indeed, our language 
has sometimes a superabundance of expression for plurality, and such exceptions 
creep in as a sort of relief: in the sentence, " Four children were at their lessons, 
— the dear creatures I " there are six words to indicate the plural number. News, 
though analogous to goods and odds, seems to be now used in the singular num- 
ber only. There is, however, s^me authority for the plural; as, "These are 
news indeed" — Shakespeare; "There are no news this morning"— Lord 
Jeffrey. Wages and pains are generally plural. Corps is pronounced kdre in 
the singular number, and Icores in the plural. 

Spell the plural of the following words : — 

Sofa, larva, house, mouse, feather-bed, booth, tooth, ox, box, 
root, foot, turf, wolf, genus, genius, isthmus, trio, cargo, alley, 
ally, nostrum, stratum, trellis, ellipsis, attorney-general. 
Cases. 

What is the objective corresponding to — 

I ? — thou ? — we ? — ye ? — he ? — she ? — they ? — who ? 

What is the possessive corresponding to each of the same words ? 

What is the nominative corresponding to — 

Me ? — us ? — thee ? — him ? — whom ? — her ? — them ? 

Form the compound pronoun : — 

My, our, thy, your, him, her, it, them, who, which, what. 

Of what gender, person, number, and case ? — 

Him, his, its, he, them, it, I, you, thy, their, she, thou, me, your, 
us, they, my, mine, thine, yours, hers, others, theirs, we, thee, our, 
ours, ye, myself, themselves, ourselves, thyself, yourself, yourselves, 
himself, itself, herself, one, none, one's, ones', other, others', who, 
what, which, whatever. 

Spell the possessive singular; then the plural, if the word can have it: — 

Sister (thus : S-i-s-sis — t-e-r-apostrophe-s-ter's — Sister's), John, 
day, Sparks, prince, horse, St. James, John Henry Thomson, he, 
one, who. other, she, it, court-martial, brother-in-law, bookkeeper ; 
the Duke of Wellington ; Allen and Baker ; Morris the book- 
seller ; Morris, the bookseller. 

The foregoing exercises on case, and the instructions on page 100, relate to 
this subject chiefly so far as forms are concerned; the rest of the subject comes 
more properly under the folio wing head of — 

Relations. 

The Relation of words is their reference to one an- 
other according to the sense. 



SENTENCES. — NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 95 

Relation frequently implies government and agreement; and it is in- 
timately connected with, position. Government is the power which 
one word has over another, in determining its case, person, number, or 
some other property. Agreement is the correspondence of one 
word with another, in case, person, number, or some other property. 
Position refers to the place which a word occupies in reference to 
other words of the sentence. 

A Noun or Pronoun, in its relation or use, maybe, — 

1. Addressive ; as, " Mary, your bird is gone." 

2. Reflective ; as, " Scotland! there is magic in the sound." 

3. Subjective ; as, " The sun is shining." 

4. Possessive ; as, Mary's bird is gone." 

5. Objective, after a transitive verb ; as, " You hurt me." 

6. Objective, after a preposition ; as, " I went to him." 

7. Restrictive, without a preposition ; as, " The ice is two feet thick." 

8. Appositive ; as, " Milton the poet was blind." 

9. Attributive ; as, " Milton was a poet and Christian." 

A participle, an infinitive, a phrase, or a clause may also be 
used in most of these different ways. 

Each of the items just given is the type or representative of a large class 
of usages that are exceedingly various," and sometimes differ by the nicest 
shades of meaning. But these several great distinctions, in the use of nouns 
and pronouns, are considered of so much importance, that they are usually 
embodied in the form of Rules. 

A Rule, in grammar, is generally a brief statement 
that teaches the proper form or use of words. 

Rule I. — An independent noun or pronoun must 
be in the nominative case. 

Rule II. — A noun or pronoun, used as the subject 
of a predicate-verb, must be in the nominative case. 

Note I. — A noun or pronoun, used as the subject of a parti- 
ciple, and not depending on any other word, must be in the nomi- 
native case. 

Rule III. — A possessive noun or pronoun must be 

in the possessive case. 

Note II. — A possessive noun, that is but a part of the posses- 
sive term, is sometimes used without the possessive sign. 

Rule IV. — A noun or pronoun, used as the object 

of a transitive verb in the active voice, must be in the 

objective case. 



96 TEXT COURSE. 

Eule V. — A noun or pronoun, used as the object 
of a preposition, must be in the objective case. 

Eul3 VI. — A noun or pronoun that limits the mean- 
ing of a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, is sometimes 
used in the objective case without a preposition ex- 
pressed. 

Such objectives generally show the time, extent, direction, man- 
ner, value, or quantity. 

Eule VII. — An appositive or attributive noun or 
pronoun must agree in case with the leading term on 
which it depends. 

^ Sometimes it is rather an explanatory than attributive term ; as, " It was the 
ivind." Wind is no attribute of it ; in such cases, substitute explanatory for 
" attributive." 

Note III. — An attributive noun or pronoun, used after an in- 
transitive participle or infinitive, and not depending on any other 
word, must be in the nominative case. 

Bul3 VIII. — A pronoun must agree with its ante- 
cedent, in gender, person, and number. 

Note IV. — A participle, an infinitive, a phrase, or a clause may 
be used as a noun in any case except the possessive. 

Singular Antecedent (or Subject) s Singular substantive ; singu- 
lar substantives joined by or or nor; singular substantive or sub- 
stantives, modified by each, every, either, neither, many a, or no; 
singular substantives, joined by and, but denoting only one object; 
collective noun, presenting all the objects as one thing. 

Ex. — " The boy has learned his lesson." " John or James has lost Ms 
book." "Neither John nor James has lost his book." "Every tree is 
known by its fruit." " My friend and partner has lost Ms horse." " The 
mob was large, and gained its object." 

Plural Antecedent (or Subject) : Plural substantive ; singular 
substantives, joined by and; collective noun, presenting the ob- 
jects individually. 

Ex. — " The boys have learned their lessons." "John and James have 
lost their books." " People are generally judged by their appearance." 

General Remarks and Illustrations, 

A sentence that has an addressive or reflective noun or pronoun, would 
generally make sense without it; hence such a noun or pronoun is usually 
said to be independent. In the sentence, " He studied his lesson with me hist 
night," he is in the nominative case to studied, according to Rule II.; his is 
in the possessive case, governed by lesson, according to Rule III.; lesson is in 
the objective case, governed by studied, according to Rule IV.; me is in the 
objective case, governed by wih, according to Rule V. ; and night is in tha 



SENTENCES. — NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 97 

objective case, limiting studied by showing when, according to Rule VI. In 
the sentence, " My brother John is his own master," John is in the nomina- 
tive case, to agree with brother, according to Kule VII. ; his is of the mas- 
culine gender, third person, and singular number, to agree with its antecedent 
brother, according to Rule VIII. ; and master is in the nominative case, to 
agree with the subject brother, according to Rule VII. Almost every word 
in a sentence is so made or modified, or is of such a nature, that it looks to 
some other word for complete sense, and would be as unmeaning and useless 
by itself as a detached piece of a steam-engine. Rules of syntax should ex- 
press two things, — the relations of words in sentences, and the peculiar 
forms of words caused by these relations. The relation must always exist, 
but it may not always require a peculiar form of the word: therefore a Rule 
of syntax must always specify a relation; and, if the word is liable to take 
a wrong form, the Rule should also demand the right form. Additional ex- 
planations and illustrations are best given by the teacher. For this purpose, 
she may write suitable sentences on the blackboard ; and then show, by con- 
necting lines drawn above or below, how the words are related. But the 
exercises which follow the adjoining remarks on Punctuation, and which are 
numbered to suit the Rules, will enable her to give her class that drilling 
which is indispensable. 

Punctuation. 

To show to better advantage the general syntax and 
meaning of discourse, certain points or marks are used. 
The principal marks of this kind are the following twelve : 
the period (.), the colon (:), the semicolon (;), the comma (,), 
the interrogation-point (?), the exclamation-point (!), the 
dash ( — ), the hyphen (-), the curves (()), the brackets ([]), 
the quotation-marks (" " or ' '), and the paragraph or 
section mark (IT or §). 

Punctuation is but a kind of finish to syntax, and is probably best taught in 
connection with the parts requiring it. In most grammars, the subject of punc- 
tuation is postponed to the end, and consequently very little is ever learned 
about it. 

The period is placed at the end of every sentence. But 
when a sentence, or a part of it, is a direct question, the 
interrogation-point is placed after the sentence or part. 
And when a sentence, or a part of it, is an exclamation, 
expressing surprise or other strong excitement, the exclama- 
tion-point is placed after the sentence or part. The colon 
is used as the intermediate point between the period and 
the semicolon. The semicolon is used as the intermediate 
point between the colon and the comma, or as the next 
greater point to the comma. The comma is the shortest 
pause-mark ; and usually shows phrases, clauses, parts of a 
r 



98 TEXT COURSE. 

series, or the omission of a connecting word. The dash 
denotes emphasis, or an abrupt turn of thought. The 
hyphen joins syllables of a word, or the parts of a com- 
pound word. The curves are used to inclose an incidental 
remark or explanation, that has an undertone in thought, 
and is called a parenthesis. The brackets are used to in- 
close a parenthesis put into another person's writing, or to 
distinguish a detached remark or subject. Quotation-marks 
are used to inclose what is quoted, or what the writer wishes 
to distinguish from the rest of his text. 

A Paragraph consists of one or more sentences, and is usually dis- 
tinguished by a new beginning on the left. The paragraph and section marks 
were much used formerly, but now they are seldom used ; the blank space 
and new commencement being considered a sufficient sign. 

Exercises. 

Mention the kind of noun or pronoun, and then dispose of the word accord- 
ing to the Rule : — S 

Words. — 1. Go, Tubal,* go. Mary, your lilies are in bloom. 

Plato, thou reason'st well. Three thousand ducats! 'tis a good 

round sum. The isles of Greece! the isles of Greece! where 

burning Sappho loved and sung. He formed thee, Adam! thee, 

O man ! The Pilgrim Fathers, — where are they ? My banks 

they are furnished with bees. O Night and Storm and Darkness, 

ye are wondrous strong. Oh, my ducats ! I shall never see my 

money again. You, sir, must remain. Webster's Dictionary. 

(This is the pure naming or nominative use of the noun, which has 

furnished the name of the case.) The Discontented Pendulum, — 

an Allegory. Punctuation. — An independent word or phrase is 

usually set off by the comma ; but when the expression is rather 

emotional, an exclamation-point is placed after it. (Now apply 

this rule to the foregroinsc sentences.) 

* Tubal is a proper noun; and it is in the nominative case, according to 
Rule I. (Repeat the Rule.) 

2. 7* am. We are. He is. (Who is?) They are. Were I. 
Shall you go ? Go thou hence. Thou dar'st not. She sings well. 
Yonder comes the powerful king of day. Come ye in peace here, 
or come ye in war V There is a calm for those who weep. Wheat, 
corn, and tobacco are the principal productions. Large quantities 
of hides and tallow are exported. The man who is industrious, 
can earn what he needs. (Who can earn ? Observe that the 
nominative relative pronoun is the subject of the verb next to it ; 
and its antecedent, of the verb beyond.) Who is he ? What is 
he? (He is who? He is what? — He is my brother. He is a 
banker. Observe that the attributive words brother and banker 



SENTENCES.— NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 99 

correspond to the interrogative pronouns ; therefore such a pro- 
noun, so used, is not the subject-nominative, but the predicate- 
nominative.) Art thou that traitor angel, art thou he, who first 
broke peace in Heaven ? / have less than he [has]. Talent is 
full of thoughts ; but genius, full of thought. To whom thus 
Adam [spoke]. A tree whose trunk has been injured, seldom re- 
covers. The mind, not the act, makes the man guilty. Reputation, 
virtue, happiness, depend greatly on the choice of companions. 
The wind rising, the flames spread. (Note I.) The fire being 
extinguished, we returned. This [being] done, we started. Punc- 
tuation. — A comma must be placed before the predicate, when a 
word or phrase might otherwise be referred to what it does not 
belong ; also a punctuated subject without a connective, and fre- 
quently a subject that ends with a clause, require a comma before 
the predicate. All phrases that are absolute, or come under Note 
I., must be set off by the comma. 

* /is a personal pronoun, in the nominative case to am, according to Rule 
II. (Repeat it. Pass thus through all the examples under each Rule ; and, at 
some future time, parse the words") 

3* John's* horse ran away. (That is, not any horse, but the 
one belonging to John.) I have read Sir Walter Scott's works. 
Whose book is it, if not mine [= my book] ? Fulton's invention 
has made rivers useful. He sells boys' clothing. Smith's [store] 
and Barton's store are in the next block. Smith, Allen, and Bar- 
ton's store was destroyed by fire. Call at Smith's, the bookseller.^ 
(That is, at Smith's house or store.) The captain of the Neptune's 
wife was drowned. (Whose wife, — the captain's or the Nep- 
tune's ? Not the word with the possessive sign, but the word that 
carries the possessive meaning, is in the possessive case.) There is 
no evidence of their having quarreled. 

* John's is a proper noun, in the possessive case, governed by horse, accord- 
ing to Rule III. t Bookseller is in the possessive case, and agrees with Smith's, 
according to Rule VII. 

4. I caught them.* He shot a deer. The soil produces cotton, 
rice, and sugar. I saw him, and he saw me. " Whom did you hit ? 
— John." (Supply "I hit.") Whom therefore ye ignorantly 
worship, him declare I unto you. I hid myself. Teach us. Teach 
us grammar. (Supply to before us, or apply Rule VI. to us.) Ask 
him for his knife. Ask him a question. (I.e., of him. " He asked 
it of me." — Dickens.) Give us our daily bread. (Supply to.) 
They crowned him king. (See the examples under Rule VII.) 
The lightnings flashed a brighter curve. He talked himself hoarse. 
Having made the law, enforce it. By reading good books, you will 
improve. To see green fields is pleasant. I knew him well, and 
every truant knew [him]. He rode the horse ; and I, the mule. 

* Them is a personal pronoun ; and it is in the objective case, governed by 
the verb caught, according to Rule IV. 

5. It was sent by me* to him. (That is, we could not say, 

* Me is a pronoun, in the objective case, governed by the preposition by, etc. 



100 TEXT COURSE. 

when speaking correctly, " It was sent by I to he. 9 *) I gave a 
melon for three pears and five peaches. He gave his money to the 
poor. By reading in good books, you will improve. Come, walk 
with me the jungle through. Lend me your knife. (Supply to.) 
After his return | home, he will write. (Supply to his.) " Of whom 
did you buy it ? — Jones." " I came from there yesterday," said 
he ; " and I know it is far from here. 9 ' The child ran on before 
me, for a short distance. Without the least ceremony or remorse, 
he destroyed my air-built castles at the moment of their completion. 
0. The street is a mile* long, and forty feet wide. (Long and 
wide to what extent ?) He remained five days. {Daring five days. 
A preposition can generally be supplied. These objectives are 
abridged adjuncts without the preposition, just as in vain, in short, 
etc., are abridged adjuncts without their objects.) The horse ran 
six miles. It is a ton heavier. I do not care a straw. The milk 
is a little- sour. The knife is worth a dollar. (Here worth is an 
adjective — valuable to the extent of a dollar.) He went home. I 
was taught music, and she was taught it. He has been here five 
times. Give [to] me the reins. Oranges grow, like apples, on 
small trees. (The indirect objects after such verbs as give, lend, 
offer, present ; and the objectives which follow the words like, near, 
worth, opposite, etc., — can all be referred to Rule VI. ; though a 
suitable preposition can generally be supplied, and then Rule V. 
should rather be used.) 

* Mile is a noun, and in the objective case, limiting long, according to Rule 
YE. 

7. Taxes, endless taxes* are the consequences of corruption. 
Yonder lives Stewart the merchant. The world is but a stage ; and 
all the men and women [are] merely players. He, being the eldest 
son, inherited the estate. She looks a goddess, and she walks a 
queen. They made him captain. Pie was made captain. Can 
you wait for me at Smith's, the bookseller ? If we whip the enemy, 
it is a victory ; if we do not, we call it strategy* Tea is the dried 
leaves of a Chinese shrub. Our liberties, our greatest blessing, we 
shall not surrender. I am the man. Hail, Sabbath ! thee I hail 
— the poor man's day. Ye scenes of my childhood. Explain 
the terms reason and instinct. They bore each a banner. They 
fled one and all. We saw them every one. They regard win- 
ter as the season of domestic enjoyment. I myselfwent. It was I. 
What is he ? (He is what ?) Whom do you take me to be ? 
Which is which ? (Which is the right one ?) To become a poet 
is the study of a lifetime. (Note III.) He resolved to rely on 

* Taxes is a common noun, in the nominative case, to agree with " Taxes " 
(preceding it), according to Rule VII. This Rule embraces two kinds of con- 
struction; same case by predication, and same case by apposition. When 
two substantives refer to the same person or thing, and an intransitive or passive 
verb joins them, the latter or explanatory substantive is said to be predicated of 
the other, and is called a predicate nominative or substantive ; as, " Jackson 
was the ganeral who was elected President." When no verb joins them, the 
substantives are said to be in apposition, or the latter is called an appositivej as, 
"Jackson, the general, was at Lake Pontchartrain." 



SENTENCES. — NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 101 

himself, — a resolution which he kept. (A substantive put in ap- 
position with a proposition or phrase that has not case, must be in 
the nominative case. — See under Rule I.) Punctuation. — An 
appositive term that is emphatic, parenthetic, rather long, or con- 
siderably detached, is usually set off by the comma. Sometimes 
the dash, semicolon, or colon may be used. (Watch for and find 
specimens.) 

8. Mary lost her* book. The best throw with the dice, is to 
throw them away. Liberty has God on her side. John and James 
know their lessons. Neither John nor James knows his lesson. 
Every heart best knows its own sorrows. You, Henry, and I must 
weed our garden. Pupils, obey your teachers. The people are 
robbed by their rulers. The swarm made its escape. Can storied 
urn or animated bust back to its mansion call the fleeting breath ? 
(The antecedent sometimes follows the pronoun.) Too low they 
build, who build beneath the stars. (A relative may refer to a dif- 
ferent pronoun as its antecedent.) Who that knows him, would 
trust him ? You are very sick, and I am sorry for it. (The ante- 
cedent may be a phrase or clause.) You wrote to me, which was 
all you did. Said Joseph to his brother, " I will go with you." 

* Her is a personal pronoun, of the feminine gender. 3d person, and singular 
number, to agree with Mary, etc. Rule VIII. is applied only when it is definitely 
known what the antecedent is. 

Words that supply two Cases. — He ate his apple, you ate 
yours* and I ate mine. My heart beats yet, but hers I can not 
feel. This glorious land is ours. That is not my business, but 
theirs. The book is thine. Thine is the kingdom. (Here thine is 
almost a pure predicate adjective; the phrase thy possession, how- 
ever, can be substituted for it.) That head of yours [your pos- 
session] has many strange fancies in it. He is a friend of yours. 
I took what suited me. Whoever sins, shall suffer. I will employ 
whomsoever you recommend. Take whichever horse you like. The 
lion will kill whatever man touches him. 

* Yours is a double possessive personal pronoun, used here for " your ap. 
pie: " your is in the possessive case, governed by apple, according to Rule III.; 
and apple is in the objective case, governed by ate, according to Rule IV. What 
i3 a double relative pronoun, used for *« that which " or " the things which .- " that 
is in the objective case, governed by took, according to Rule IV. ; and which is in 
the nominative case to suited, according to Rule II. "Whichever horse" is 
equivalent to " the horse which." (Proceed as before.) The foregoing is not the 
most scientific method of treating these words; but it is probably the best for 
beginners. We shall present another view of this subject hereafter. 

Participles and Infinitives used as Nouns. — Seeing is believ- 
ing. To lie is disgraceful. To reign is worth ambition. Most 
children like to play. Most children like skating and sleighing. 
Reading, writing, and ciphering are taught in our school. I am 
engaged in writing. She never comes except to scold. You have 
nothing to do but to wait. I heard the closing of a door or win- 
dow. After having been robbed, he tried to escape. It is easy to 
talk. (To talk agrees in case with It.) 'Tis not the whole of life 
to live, nor all of death to die. To be — or not to be, — that is the 



102 % TEXT COURSE. 

question! (Rule I.) To sleep, — perchance to dream. O, to 

abide in the desert with thee ! 

Seeing is a participle, used here as a noun; and it is the subject of is, ac- 
cording to Note IV. Believing is a participle, used here as an attributive noun, 
in the nominative case, to agree with seeing, according to Note IV. To lie is an 
infinitive, used here as a noun ; and it is the subject of is, according to Note IV. 

Phrases used as Nouns. — To act without reflecting is to set out 
on a journey without \ being prepared for it. (What is ? is what ? 
without what?) To listen well and to answer well are the two 
principal things in conversation. To try \ to deceive God is folly. 
To employ your money in \ doing good is to put it out at the highest 
interest. To have learned so beautiful an art will be ever a pleas- 
ure to me. Grammar teaches how to speak and write correctly. 
(Teaches what ?) He ordered the school-room to be daily venti- 
lated. Suppose me dead, and then suppose a club assembled at the 
Rose (Dean Swift). I requested him to enter. The victories of 
Hannibal compelled the Romans to give up their posts in Africa. I 
saw her strike the child. We like better to give advice than to set a 
good example. Toward the earth's center is down. One word is 
too often profaned for me to profane it. Such is the vanity of being 
a belle. Our country is worth fighting for. He made no secret of 
my | having written the review (Irving). (Of what? my what?) 
His | being there, was the ground of suspicion (Lord Jeffrey). 
Sir Joshua Reynolds then compared Charles XII. with Alexander 
the Great. It is sweet to die for one's country. (It — what ?) It 
is better not to be born than to remain uneducated. O, it is excel- 
lent to have a giant's strength, but it is tyrannous to use it like a giant. 
Delightful task! to rear the tender thought, \ to teach the young 
idea \ how to shoot. Punctuation. — A phrase, used as a noun, is 
seldom set off by a point: an objective phrase almost never; a 
subjective, attributive, or appositive phrase, more frequently, 
especially when emphatic, rather long, or considerably removed. 

To act without reflecting is an infinitive phrase, used here as a noun, the 
subject of is, according to Note IV. To set out on a journey icithout being 
prepared for it is an infinitive phrase, used here as a predicate-nominative that 
agrees with the subject, " To act," etc., according to Note IV. Being prepared 
for it is a participial phrase, used here as a noun, the object of tvithout, according 
to Note IV. A participle or an infinitive is used as a noun, whenever it has case. 
Sometimes a participle or an infinitive is so closely connected with its modifiers, 
that the whole phrase must be taken as one term. That the article is sometimes 
used before such a phrase, proves that the phrase is a noun ; as, " The not hav- 
ing distinctly taken leave, will sometimes imbitter life." — Dickens. 

Clauses used as Nouns. — That the earth is round, is now well 
known. (What is well known ?) Whether we should go, was next 
discussed. How he brags, is something remarkable. Some geolo- 
gists declare that the mountains were once plains covered by the sea. 
(Declare what?) Many people imagine that they have experience, 
' simply because they have grown old. He has written to me that 
he will come Saturday. The ancients believed that fire is a treasure 
which men stole from the gods. Do you think that a guilty person is 
never tortured by remorse f Few children consider how much has 



SENTENCES. — NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 103 

been done for them by their parents. It is supposed that there are 
twenty thousand proverbs circulating among the people. (It — what ?) 
The iaw should be, that he who can not read should not vote. The 
excuse was, that the army had not been well enough equipped, | that 
the roads were too bad, and that the supplies were insufficient. O 
disastrous night ! with the shocking news, " Mother is dying ! " 
"Mother is dead!" "Dust thou art, to dust returnest" was not 
written of the soul. " The saddest object," says Gough, " that I 
ever saw, is an old child." (Says what?) Turn, gentle hermit, 
to where yon taper cheers the vale with hospitable ray. The question 
of what are to be the powers of the crown is superior to that of icho is 
to wear it (Fox). Punctuation. — A clause, used as a noun, is more 
frequently set off than a phrase : a quoted statement, or similar 
clause, is always set off, — usually by the comma ; a subjective 
clause, nearly always ; an objective clause, very seldom; an attribu- 
tive or appositive clause, more frequently, especially when emphatic, 
rather long, or considerably removed. A quoted paragraph, or a 
quoted statement formally introduced, is set off by the colon. 

That the earth is round is a clause, used here as a noun, the subject of is 
known, according to Note IV. 

Miscellaneous. — The squirrel in the forest seeks his hollow 
tree. The blue-bird chants a hymn, to welcome the budding year. 
A gleam of blue on the water lies. There is a force that lives 
within the sea's immensity, and wields the weight of its abysses. 
Gushing fresh in the little streams, what a prattle the waters 
make ! Light sprays of myrtle, with roses in bud and bloom, 
drooped by the winding walks. There is no glory in star or blos- 
som, till looked upon by a loving eye. Rome then was yet a 
wilderness, a weedy solitude, by Tiber's yellow stream. He raised 
his eyes to where I stood. Wave, Munich ! all thy banners wave. 
Thinking and feeling are the chief attributes of the soul, and its 
greatest happiness is in knowing and loving. He who will not rea- 
son is a bigot ; he who can not, is a fool ; and he who dares not, is a 
slave. Dr. Samuel Johnson was born in Lichfield, England, in 
1 709 ; and died in London, in 1 784. The history of the world is 
full of testimony to prove how much depends upon industry. To 
borrow of future time is thriftless management. In Europe, amuse- 
ments are regarded as safety-valves. Let us, as our duty, try to 
alleviate their misery. I do not know where he is. The sentinel 
cried oul, " Who goes there ? " It is easy to spend money. It is 
not known how the Egyptians embalmed their dead. 

In the foregoing exercises, the pupil may mention the noun or pronoun, the 
kind, the properties, and the Rule, so as to make almost complete parsing. 
Thus: squirrel is a common noun; of the masculine gender, third person, singu- 
lar number; and in the nominative case to seeks, according to Rule II. Dead, in 
the last example, is an adjective, used as a noun, in place of the phrase dead 
persons; it is of the common gender, third person, plural number; and it is 
the object of embalmed, according to Rule IV. 

Questions. — What is meant by relation, in sentences? What is said of 
government? — agreement? — position? Can you state, comprehensively, the 
syntax of nouns and pronouns? What is a Rule? Repeat Rule 1st; — 2d; — 
3d; — 4th; — 5th;— 6th; — 7th; — 8th; — Notelst; — 2d; — 3d; — 4th. When is 
an antecedent singular ? — when plural ? (It is singular when it consists of, etc.) 



104 TEXT COURSE. 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Analysis is the resolving of a sentence into its prin- 
cipal and subordinate parts ; or into clauses, phrases, 
and words, according to the sense in which they are 
put together. It is graded syntax. 

Parsing is the resolving of a sentence into its parts 
of speech, and describing each word accordingly. 

Elements, in analysis, are the parts of sentences. 

An element may be, in its form, — 

1. Simple. " Roses | bloom." " Some roses | bloom a long time." 

2. Compound. " Roses and lilies | bloom and fade." 

3. Modified. "Roses of all kinds \ bloom luxuriantly \ in our garden* 9 

4. Unmodified. " Nations flourish and decay." 

A word modifies another when it affects its meaning, or makes it more 
specific. A modifier generally specifies, limits, explains, or describes. 

An element may be, in its relation or office, — 

1. Independent. " Friends, | the night is dark, | and the wind blows cold." 

2. Principal. " The paths of glory lead but to the grave." 

3. Subordinate. " The paths of glory lead but to the grave." 

4. Connective. " She will be true while winds blow and rivers flow." 

5. Co-ordinate with another. " Mothers wept, | and fathers felt gloomy 

and revengeful" [water." 

6. Correlative with another. "The deeper the well, | the cooler the 

Subordinate and dependent are both used to express the same general mean- 
ing; but dependent is more commonly applied to clauses. 

A Sentence is either simple or composite. 

A Simple Sentence consists of but one proposition. 

A Composite Sentence comprises two or more clauses. 

A clause or sentence may be, — 

1. Declarative. " She sings." " She does not sing." 

2. Interrogative. " Does she sing ? " " Does she not sing ? " 

3. Imperative. " Sing." " Do not sing." 

4. Exclamatory. " How she sings ! " "Didn't she sing ! " 
Each of these kinds may be, — 

1. Affirmative. " Many men are true." 

2. Negative. " Many men are not true." 

Sometimes a sentence is a composite of different statements. And an ex- 
clamatory statement is essentially but one of the other kinds in form, but so 
used as to express chiefly emotion. 



SENTENCES, — NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 105 

A clause or sentence may begin with or have a con- 
nective that joins it to another element or sentence. 

A clause or sentence may have an independent word 
or phrase, in addition to the statement. 

A clause or statement must consist of a subject and 
a predicate. 

The subject may be simply a word, a phrase, or a 
clause. 

The predicate may be a word or a phrase. 

The subject may consist of a subject-nominative and 
modifiers. 

The predicate may consist of a predicate-verb and 
modifiers or adjuncts. 

It would be well to call the modifiers of nouns and pronouns adnouns; 
and the modifiers of verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, adjuncts. The attach- 
ments to the verb can not well be always called modifiers ; and the modifiers 
of substantives generally go with nouns, pronouns seldom requiring modi- 
fiers. 

A word, in a sentence, may serve or be served. 
A Noun or Pronoun may be independent, subjective, 
or subordinate. 

It may be subordinate, or adjunctive, by Rule HI., IV., V., VI., or VII. 

A Noun or Pronoun may be modified, — 

1. By an article. 

2. By an adjective, adjective phrase, or adjective clause. 

3. By a possessive word or phrase. 

4. By an appositive word, phrase, or clause. 

5. By a participle or participial phrase. 

6. By an infinitive or infinitive phrase. 

7. By a prepositional phrase. 

Most of these kinds of elements can also be used as adjuncts to verbs, ad- 
jectives, and adverbs. See pp. 44-49. 

Illustrations and Remarks. — 1. "The man is a tailor." 2. "Tall 
oaks from little acorns grow." "A mind, eager to learn, seizes every thing 
quickly." " The heart has no secrets which conduct does not reveal" (What 
kind of secrets?) " The cane from which sugar is obtained was brought from 
China." " Hns earth a spot where man shall loeep no more?" 3. " Tilton's 
store is now Tilton and Bradford's store." 4. u There were daisies and but- 
tercups, the jewel flowers of my childhood." "It is easy to open the soul to 



106 TEXT COURSE. 

ambition ; but it is hard to shut it up again." (Tt — what?) " It is said that 
a woman may be an angel in society and yet a denil in her own house." 5. " Those 
trees, drooping so low, bear the largest apples known." (What trees? what 
apples?) 6. "Efforts to succeed, gradually produce the ability to achieve 
something." (What efforts? what ability?) 7. " The strength of the state is 
in the will of the people." (What strength? what will?) Any clause, not 
appositive, that relates to a noun or pronoun, may be termed an adjective 
clause ; and any phrase that relates to a noun or pronoun, may be called an 
adjective phrase. It is more instructive and convenient, however, to preserve 
a greater variety in phrases ; and hence the term adjective phrase is usually 
restricted to a phrase of which the chief word is an adjective, and which is 
construed like a participial phrase. Sometimes an adverb relates rather to 
a subject or substantive than to the verb; as, " But chiefly thou, O Spirit, 
instruct me " (Milton). It then becomes an adnoun, or adjective modifier. 

Questions. — What is Analysis ? What is Parsing? What are elements? 
How may an element be in its form? — in its use or relation ? Into what two 
classes may sentences be divided ? What is a simple sentence ? — a composite ? 
What may a clause or sentence be, in the mode of predication ? What is said 
of connectives?— of independent words or phrases ? What are the two parts 
of a statement ? What is said about the subject ? — the predicate ? In what two 
ways can most words be used in sentences ? What is the general syntax of the 
noun and pronoun ? By how many and what elements may a noun or pronoun 
be modified ? 

Order of Analysis and Parsing. 

Sentence. — The kind of sentence ; the clauses, and how 
related ; the subject and the predicate ; the subject-nominative, and 
its modifiers ; the predicate-verb, and its modifiers or adjuncts. 

Noun. — A noun, and why ; kind, and why ; gender, and why ; 
person, and why ; number, and why ; declension ; case, and Rule. 

PronOMIl. — A pronoun, and why; kind, and why; gender, 
and why ; person, and why ; number, and why ; declension ; case, 
and Rule. 

Nouns and Personal Pronouns. 
I myself saw John and his brother. 

Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is I my- 
self ; I is the subject -nominative, which is strengthened by the emphatic 
appositive myself. Saw John and his brother, is the predicate; saw is the 
predicate-verb, limited by the objects John and brother, which are connected 
by and, and the latter of which is limited by his. 

X is a pronoun, it is a word used in stead of a noun ; personal, it is 

one of those pronouns which distinguish the grammatical persons ; of 

the common gender, it may denote either a male or a female ; first person, 

it denotes the speaker; singular number, it means but one; nom. I; 

and in the nominative case — it is the subject of the verb saw — according 

to Rule II. (Always repeat the Rule.) 

In defining: » pronoun, it is sometimes more accurate to say, " It is a word that 
supplies the place of a noun." 

Abridged. — / is a personal pronoun, of the common gender, first 



SENTENCES. — NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 107 

person, singular number; and in the nom. case to the verb saw. Rule 
II. (Parsing is abridged by simply omitting the definitions or reasons.) 

Myself is a pronoun, — a word used in stead of a noun ; compound, 
it is compounded of my and self; personal, etc. * * * and in the nomina- 
tive case, to agree with 7, according to Rule VII. 

Abr. — Myself is a compound personal pronoun, etc. 

tToJin is a noun, it is a name ; proper, it is the distinctive name of a 
particular person, or it is the name of an individual object; third person, 
it denotes a person as spoken of; singular number, it means but one ; and 
in the objective case, governed by saw, according to Rule IV. 

His is a pronoun, — a word used in stead of a noun ; personal, it is 
one of those pronouns which distinguish the grammatical persons ; of 
the masculine gender, third person, and singular number, to agree with 
John, according to Rule VIII. ; nom. he, poss. his ; and in the possessive 
case — governed by brother — according to Rule III. 

Abr. — His is a personal pronoun, of the masculine gender, 3d pers., 
s. n., to agree with John, according to Rule VIII. ; and in the possessive 
case, governed by brother, according to Rule III. 

Brother is parsed like John, except that it is a common noun. 

Relative Pronouns. 

Read thy doom in the flowers, which fade and die. 

Analysis. — This is a composite declarative sentence, consisting of a 
principal and a dependent clause. The principal clause is, Read thy, etc. ; 
thou, understood, is the subject. (The rest as heretofore.) Which fade and 
die is the dependent clause, joined to flowers by which, and this word is also 
the subject; fade and die is the predicate, and it is compound. 

Which is a pronoun, — a word used in stead of a noun ; relative, it 
stands in close relation to an antecedent, and joins to it a descriptive 
clause ; of the neuter gender, third person, and plural number, to agree 
with flowers, according to Rule VIII.; and in the nominative case — it is 
the subject of the verbs fade and die — according to Rule II. 

Abr. — Which is a relative pronoun, of the neuter gender, third 
person, and singular number, to agree with flowers, according to Rule 
VIII. ; and in the nominative case to the verbs fade and die. Rule II. 

James reads what pleases him. 

Analysis. — This is a composite sentence, equivalent to the two clauses 
James reads that — which pleases him. James reads that is the principal 
clause; James is the subject, etc. (Proceed as heretofore.) 

What is a double relative pronoun, equivalent to that which. That 
is a demonstrative adjective pronoun, of the neuter gender, third per- 
son, singular number ; and in the objective case, governed by reads, 
according to Rule IV. Which is a relative pronoun, of the neuter gen- 



108 TEXT COURSE. 

der, 3d person, sing, number, to agree with that, according to Rule VIII. ; 
and in the nominative case to the verb pleases, according to Rule II. 

Or thus: What is a pronoun, — a word used in stead of a noun; relative, 
it makes its clause dependent on another; of the neuter gender , it denotes neither 
a male nor a female; third person, it represents an object as spoken of; singular 
number, it means but one ; and, because it takes the place of that which or thing 
which, it is here used as the object of reads, according to Rule IV. (repeat it), 
and also as the subject of pleases, according to Rule II. 

Interrogative Pronouns. 

Whom did you see ? 

Whom is a pronoun, — a word used in stead of a noun ; interroga- 
tive, it is used to ask a question ; of the common gender, it may denote 
cither a male or a female; third person, it represents an object as spoken 
of; singular number, it means but one ; and in the objective case — it is 
the object of the verb did see — according to Rule IV. 

Abr. — Whom is an interrogative pronoun, of the com. gen., 3d 
pers., s. n. ; and in the obj. case, governed by did see, etc. 

I do not know what he is doing. 

What he is doing, is a clause used in the sense of a noun ; of 
the neuter gender, third person, singular number ; and in the objective 
case — it is the object of do know — according to Rule IV. 

What is a pronoun, — it supplies the place of a noun ; responsive, it 
is used as if in answer to a question ; of the neuter gender, it denotes 
neither a male nor a female ; third person, it represents an object as 
spoken of; singular number, it means but one ; and in the objective case 
— it is the object of the verb is doing — according to Rule IV. 

Abr. — What is a relative indefinite pronoun, of the n. g., 3d p., 
s. n. ; and in the obj. case, governed by is doing, etc. See p. 129. 

Adjective Prononns. 

The old bird feeds her young ones. 

Ones is an adjective pronoun, it is a common specifying adjective 
used as a pronoun ; it is here used in place of birds, and is therefore of 
the common gender, third person, and plural number ; and in the ob- 
jective case — being the object of the verb feeds — according to Rule IV. 

Abr. — Ones is an indefinite adjective pronoun, of the c. g., 3d p., 
and pi. n. ; and in the objective case — governed by the verb feeds — ac- 
cording to Rule IV. 

Abbreviated Analysis and Parsing. 

In some books, diagrams are used to teach Analysis. But these are use- 
ful only as an introduction, and as furnishing a concise mode of recitation. 
For this last purpose, however, it is probably more convenient to use letters; 
and we therefore present the following scheme, for written exercises. 



SENTENCES. — NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 109 

Let S stand for sentence ; P, for proposition ; X, for any independent 
element ; C, for principal or independent clause ; c, for dependent clause ; 
c', c", c'", etc., for degrees of dependence below the first ; and =, for 
equivalence. 

Let pn represent " proper noun ; " en, common noun ; cnl, collective 
common noun ; pp, personal pronoun ; rp, relative pronoun ; ip, inter- 
rogative pronoun ; ap, adjective pronoun ; mg, mascuiinc gender ; fg, 
feminine gender ; eg, common gender ; ng, neuter gender ; \p, first per- 
son ; 2p, second person ; 3p, third person ; sn, singular number ; pn, 
plural number; nc, nominative case; pc, possessive case; oc, objective 
case. 

Most people, who embark in the voyage of life, wish to 
advance rather by the impulse of the wind than by the 
strokes of the oar ; and many are foundered, while they lie 
waiting for the gale. 

S = C, c ; C, c. 

People — cnl, eg, 3p, pn, nc — subject of wish. Rule II. 

Who — rp, eg, 3p, pn, Rule VIII., nc — subject of embark. Rule II. 

Voyage — en, ng, 3p, sn, oc — object of in. Rule V. 

Liife — en, ng, 3p, sn, oc — governed by of. Rule V. (And so on.) 



An excellent way to teach analysis and parsing, is to furnish your pupils 
with blank copy-books: give them a pithy sentence daily, or as often as con- 
venient; let them write it into their copy-books, and analyze and parse it as here 
shown. To examine this work expeditiously, let the pupils exchange copy-books, 
and criticise one another, while you go through the* lesson and comment upon it. 

Exercises. 

Analyze the sentences, and parse the nouns and pronouns : — 
1. We caught him. 2. Albert hurt himself. 3. They 
came with me. 4. Art thou the man? 5. Mary and 
Martha have recited their lessons. 6. My mother being 
sick, I remained at home. 7. She who studies her glass, 
neglects her heart. 8. It was I that went. 9. Take what- 
ever you like. 10. Whoever gives to the poor, lends to the 
Lord. 11. Who is he? 12. Who is my neighbor? 13. 
Who knows whom to send ? 14. Others may be wiser, but 
none are more amiable. 15. Some were for this, and some 
for that. 16. Motionless torrents ! silent cataracts ! who 
made you glorious as the gates of heaven ? 17. All day 
thy wings have fanned the cold thin atmosphere. 18. Be- 



110 TEXT COURSE. 

low the snow was the brotherhood of evergreens, — the 
pine, the cedar, the spruce, and the hemlock. 19. A beau- 
tiful morning it was ; and Nature was out in all her jewelry, 
or, as some little Molly or Tommy would say, in all her 
" deivelry" — and that is just the word wanted. 20. The 
hand that overturns our laws and temples is the hand of 
death unbarring the gates of Pandemonium. 21. We saw 
the tremulous waters glistening in the sun. 22. That liis 
intellect is great, is evident from his being able to grasp the 
grandest propositions without losing or forgetting the small- 
est details. 

4. Apply Rule I. to thou, and Rule VII. to man. 6. Say mother is in the 
nominative case according to Note I. 8. It has no antecedent. 9. Say wliatever 
is equivalent to any thing which, and then parse these words : but do not say, 
** Whatever, in representing thing, is a noun of the neuter gender," etc. ; for 
such parsing is absurd. 12. This sentence is ambiguous. It may mean, 7s 
any one my neighbor 1 and then who is the subject; or it may mean, What kind 
of person is my neighbor ? and then neighbor is the subject. 13. Whom to send 
is an infinitive phrase, used here as a noun of the ng, 3p, sn; and it is the object 
of humus, according to Note IV. Whom is a responsive pronoun, the object of 
to send. To send is a present, transitive, active infinitive ; used here as a noun, 
the object of knows, according to Rule IV= 17. Apply Rule VI. to day. 2!L 
Saw what ? The entire phrase may be first parsed as the object of saw, accord- 
ing to Note IV.; and then waters may be parsed as the object of saw, according 
to Rule IV. 22. That his intellect is great, is a clause used as a noun. Being 
able is a participial phrase used as a noun of the ng, 3p, sn ; and governed by 
from, according to Rule V. Losing is a present active transitive participle, 
used here as a noun of the ng, 3p, sn ; and governed by without, according to 
Rule V. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Under Rule I. 

And me, — what shall I do ? 

Incorrect: the pronoun me, in the objective case, should be J, in the nomi- 
native case, according to Rule I. (Repeat the Rule.) We shall not encumber the 
following exercises with formulas. Schools are already too mechanical; and 
surely the teacher, if at all competent, can show the pupil how to correct the 
sentences in a clear and simple manner; while the latter can not spend his time 
better than in learning how to tell best what he really knows. As a general 
rule, the pupil should first say that the sentence is incorrect; he should then 
state in what respect it is wrong, make the necessary correction, and give his 
reasons for the change. Lastly, he may read the corrected sentence. 

O happy us ! surrounded with so many blessings. 
And thee ! immortal Shakespeare, prince of song ! 

Rule II. 

Them that seek wisdom, shall find it. 

Incorrect : the pronoun them, in the objective case, is the subject of the 
verb shall find ; and therefore it should be they, in the nominative case, accord- 
ing to Rule II. 

Her and him were chosen. Thee art most in fault. 

Him I accuse, has entered. He whom, etc. 



SENTENCES. — NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. Ill 

Who made the fire? — John and me [made it]. 

The word containing the answer to a question, must generally be in the same 
case as the word which asks it; for a similar construction is understood. 

Who swept the room ? — Us girls. Who went ? — Him and me. 

Who rode in the buggy ? — Him and Jane. 

What were you and him talking about ? Whom shall I say called ? 

You did fully as well as me. He writes better than me. 

After as or than a predicate is generally understood. 

I have tasted no better apples than them are. 

The whole need not a physician, but them that are sick. — Bunyan. 

We sorrow not as them that have no hope. 

She is neither better nor worse than you or me. — Thackeray. 

I do not think such persons as him competent to judge. 

Truth is greater than us all. — Horace Mann. 

He is taller than me, but I am as tali as her. 

Whom, would you suppose, stands head in our class ? 

Observation 1. — When the form of the relative 
prevents it from furnishing two cases, it must take 
the form required for its own clause. 

For the other clause, a suitable antecedent must be supplied in parsing. In 
the sentence, " Give it to whoever needs it," whoever can not be both objective 
and nominative; therefore its nominative form is preferred so as to suit the verb 
needs, and an antecedent is supplied for to. " Give it to any person who needs 
it." The ever or soever should be omitted when the antecedent is supplied. 

The advice of those whom you think are hearty in the cause, must 

direct you. — Washington. [road. 

A reward was offered to whomsoever would point out a practicable 

This raised the curiosity of the reporter as to whom the con- 
sequential darkey might be.— Newspaper. 

Note I. — Me being sick, the business was neglected. 
Them refusing to comply, I withdrew. [education. 

Her being the only daughter, no expense had been spared in her 
Him who had led them to battle being killed, they retreated. 
Whose gray top shall tremble, Him descending. 

Obs. 2. — It is generally improper to omit the sub- 
ject-nominative, unless the verb is in the imperative 
mood, or closely connected with another verb relating 
to the same subject. 

He was a man had no influence. (Supply who.) 
There is no man knows better how to make money. 
It was this induced me to send for you. (Supply that) 



112 TEXT COURSE. 

Have just received your letter. Shall visit you to-morrow. 

If there are any have been omitted, they must say so. 

She saw at once what was best to do. This is what became us to do. 

Am sorry to hear of your misfortune ; but hope you will recover. 

This is a position I condemn, and must be better established. 
Whose own example strengthens all his laws, 
And is himself the great sublime he draws. 

Will martial flames for ever fire thy mind, 

And never, never, be to heaven resigned ? — Pope. 

Exception 1.— By a figure of syntax, called enaVlage y the objective caso 
is allowed in a few poetic or idiomatic expressions; as, — 
" Fare thee well, thou first and fairest ! 
Fare thee well, thou best and dearest 1 " — Burns. 
" Fare thou well " would be so grammatical as to spoil the poetry. 

Exc. 2. — Than, in a few expressions, is usually considered a preposition, 
governing the objective case; as, " Satan, than whom, none higher sat." — Mil- 
ton. As, in a few expressions, is rather used to connect words in the sense of 
apposition, than as parts of distinct clauses; e.g., "England can spare such men 
as him." — Brougham. Not, " such men as he is," but, " such men, including 
him," or simply, " him." 

Rule III. 

Do you use Webster or Johnson's Dictionary ? 

I will not destroy the city for ten sake. A five days journey. 

Brown, Smith, and Jones's wife, usually went shopping together. 

We insist on them staying with us. I shall rely on you coming. 

His father was opposed to him going to California. 

What do you think of [us ? or our f] going into partnership ? 

A participle that follows a noun or pronoun, becomes a participial noun, when 
the participle is the chief word in sense. 

Obs. 1. — The possessive case of a noun should al- 
ways be written with an apostrophe, and with 's in 
the singular ; the possessive case of a personal pro- 
noun should never be written with an apostrophe. 
This is the boys hat. Six months interest is due. 
A mothers tenderness and a fathers care are natures gifts for mans 

advantage. He keeps a variety of mens and boys hats. 
He keeps a large assortment of childrens playthings. See p. 86. 
No ones ability ever went farther for others good. See p. 87. 
The two electric fluids neutralized each others' effects. — Har- 
Do you know where Henry's books are ? [per's Magazine. 

This is the best edition of Burns' works. 
There is great delicacy of expression in some of Willis' poems. 

Exception. — From a few idiomatic phrases, the possessive s is usually 
omitted; as, "For conscience* sake," " For goodness' sake." In poetry, the pos- 
sessive s may also be sometimes, omitted; as, "Achilles* wrath" (Pope); "A 



SENTENCES, — NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 113 

■woeful ballad to his mistress* eyebrow" (Shak.). Some writers omit the pos- 
sessive s from proper nouns that already end with the sound of s : but the 
majority of standard authors do not; as, " Dennis's Works" (Pope); "Louis's 
reign" (Macaujlay); " Charles's affairs" (Pkescott). 

Every tree is known by it's fruit. 

These are our's. That is your's or their's, not her's. 

Do not say yourn, hern, hissen, ourn, or theirn, for yours, hers, his, ours, or 
theirs. 

This mans place is taken. These mens places are taken. 

That officers servant is here. Those officers servants are here. 

This sheeps wool is fine. These sheeps wool is fine. 

He brought a deers horns. He brought five deers horns. 

According to some grammarians, put the apostrophe before the s of such 
words as deer, sheep, when singular; after the s, when plural. 

Exception. — A possessive noun, in apposition with another, is sometimes 
written without any possessive sign ; but it is remarkable that while such a noun 
does not always require a possessive form, such a pronoun must always have it. 
" Thy Maker's will has placed thee here, 
A Maker wise and good." — Brown's Grammar. 

The foregoing sentence is correct; but, misled by this grammar or principle, 
Mrs. Sigourney wrote improperly, — 

" His curse be on him. He, who knoweth [, -r-Jpis] 
Where the lightnings hide." 

Obs. 2. — A compound word or a complex term 
takes the possessive sign but once ; generally at the 
end, or next to the name of what is owned* 

I bought the book at Smith's, the bookseller's. 

Say, "at Smith's, the bookseller," or, " at Smith the bookseller's; " rather 
the former. 

I will meet you at Mason's, the apothecary's. 

We used to read about Jack's the Giant-killer's wonderful exploits. 

This palace had been the grand jSultan's Mohammed's. 

These works are Cicero's, the most eloquent of men's. 

Obs. '3. — A pair or series of nouns, implying com- 
mon possession, take the possessiye sign at the end, 
and but once. 

Bond's and Allen's store is the next one above us, 

Allen's, Thomson's, and Hardcastle's store is opposite to ours. 

Read's and Judson's office is on the corner* 

Robert's and Mary's uncle has just come. 

Peter's and Andrew's occupation was that of fishermen. [men. 

Beaumont's and Fletcher's Plays were the joint production of two 

Bond and Allen's store is one store, belonging to both men. 

Bond's and Allen's store are two stores, one belonging to each man. 

That one ownership allows but one possessive sign, that each dis- 
tinct ownership requires a distinct possessive sign, and that the pos- 



114 TEXT COURSE. 

seasive sign should be placed as near as possible to the name of what 
is owned, are fundamental ideas that govern the syntax of the pos- 
sessive case. 

Obs. 4. — A pair or series of nouns that do not 
imply common possession, or that are emphatically 
distinguished, take each the possessive sign. 

Do you know where Richard and Mary's books are ? 

John and William's boots fit them well. Is it John or James' book ? 

Allen, Thomson, and Hardcastle's store are the next three above us. 

As well, or better, thu3 : "Allen's store, Thomson's, and Hardcastle's are 
the next," etc. 

They took the surgeon as well the physician's advice. 
It is my father as well as my mother's wish. 

Obs. 5. — To avoid harshness or inelegance, posses- 
sion is sometimes better expressed by of y or by making 
a mere adjective of the possessive word ; and some- 
times even the possessive s may be omitted. 
Essex's death haunted the conscience of Queen Elizabeth. 
Leonidas's soldiers were as brave as himself. 
England and France's armies fought side by side, in the Crime'a. 
Such were Daniel Boone of Kentucky's adventures. 
He read Euripides's Plays and Demothenes's Orations. 
We have all heard of Socrates' scolding wife Xantippe. 

Say, " of Xantippe, the scolding wife of Socrates. 
He thinks his own opinions better than any one else's opinions — 

any one's else opinions. — than those of any one else. 

In the colloquial style, the first expression is probably allowable. " Like 
nobody else's children." — Jerrold: Mrs. Caudle. 

Yesterday's evening was a pleasant time with us. 

He owns the best house in Lucas's Place. 

There is a stately monument on Bunker's Hill, 

They took a glass for old acquaintance's sake. 

They cast themselves down at Jesus's feet. 

Archimedes's screw is an hydraulic machine. 

The defeat of Xerxes's army was the downfall of Persia. 



Between the possessive case and the word of there is sometimes nice 
choosing; but this must be left chiefly to the idiomatic skill of the writer. 
We can say "fancy's flight," " the lightning's flash," " the law's delay," " an 
hour's warning," " a week's holiday," ** to-morrow's lessons ; " and yet we could 
not say "gunpowder's inventor," "iron's value," "heat's laws," " the cheese's 
weight," " to-morrow's morning." 

Obs, 6. — Words should not have the plural form 
or number, when the sense does not require it. 



SENTENCES. — NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 115 

Few persons are contented with their lots. 

Lots should be lot, according to Obs. VI., under Rule III. — Such a needless 
plural is generally caused by a preceding possessive plural. 
It was for our sakes that Jesus died upon the cross. 
Let us drive on, and get our suppers at the next house. 
The directors did little on their parts, to relieve the bank. 
They ate heartily, and then took their leaves. — Dickens. 
The farm is a long ways from market. Make a memoranda of it. 

By the same analogy, somewheres, nowheres, anywheres, etc., are frequently 
used improperly for somewhere, nowhere, anywhere, etc. 

Both he and I were neither of us any great talkers. 

Ilis father's and mother's names were written on the blank leaf. 

Better: "His fathers name and his mother's were written," etc. 

We say, " The Old and New Testaments," in stead of " The Old Testament 
and the New Testament; * and, on the same principle, " Bancroft's and Palfrey's 
Histories " (Atlantic Monthly), " Glover's, Mason's, and Patterson's regi- 
ments " (Irving), seem to have been used. But English grammars teach that 
we should say, " Bancroft's and Palfrey's History." 

Such expressions as " a ten-foot pole," " a twenty-cewf piece," " a five- 
dollar note/' etc., are proper; but a hyphen should always be used to connect 
the parts. The noun, in such expressions, being used as an adjective, loses the 
properties of a noun. If these singulars should be plural on account of the 
syntax, then it would not seem unreasonable to require he to be him or them in 
the following example : " They brought /ie-goats." 

Rule IV. 

Who did you see ? Who do you mean ? 

Who did you call ? Who shall I send ? Who do you want ? 

Who can I trust in such a place, or who shall I employ ? 

Who should I meet the other day but my old friend ! — Addison. 

Let him send you and I. Let thou and I the battle try. 

Ye only have I known. Tell me who you mean. 

Let them the state defend, and he adorn. — Cowley. 

Him you should punish ; not I, who am innocent. 

She that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. 

Whosoever he favors, will be appointed. See p. 111. 

Rule V. 

Who did you come with ? Who do you work for ? 
Who is that boy speaking to ? This is between you and I. 
Between you and / there is little difference of opinion. 
They who much is given to, will have much to answer for. 
I do not know who she went with. Who is it for ? 

It is frequently better to place the preposition before its object. 
I saw no one there except he. " Who did he send for ? — We. 
Who were you talking with ? Who shall I direct it to ? 



»> 



116 TEXT COURSE. 

I gave it to somebody ; I have forgotten who. — Spectator. 
My son is to be married to I don't know who. — Goldsmith. 
Let it be for whoever it is for. — N. Y. Herald. 

When but and save are followed by a noun or pronoun, and not by a clause, 
they are now considered prepositions rather than conjunctions; as, " Whence 
all but him had fled." — Hemans. " All desisted, all save him alone." — Words- 
worth. 

Obs. — The object of the active verb, and not that 
of the preposition, should be made the subject of the 
passive verb. 

We were shown a sweet potato that weighed fifteen pounds. 
You were paid a high compliment by the young lady. 
Mr. Burke was offered a very lucrative employment. — Goodrich. 
Washington was <nven the command of a division. — Irving. 
He was presented a beautiful sword by his neighbors. 
Here we were presented with some very curious fossil remains. 



To this rule there are probably some exceptions, — sentences that are so 
idiomatic or pithy that they can not well be changed without savoring of gram- 
matical pedantry; as, " I was immediately shown into the parlor." — Dickens. 

Rule VI. 

I returned on yesterday. It is by much heavier. 

He was a lad of twelve or fifteen years old. 

Let a gallows be made of fifty cubits high. — Bible. 

An infant of two or three years old is not responsible. — Wa yland. 

My landlady had a daughter of nine years old. — Swift. 

Just beyond the church is a lot of sixty feet square. 

Who do I look like ? She promised him and I some peaches. 

Rule VII. 

I knew it was him. I knew it to be he. Is it me ? 

Let us worship God, he who created and sustains us. 

It is me. It was them. Was it him or her ? 

I did not know it was her. I thought it was her. 

It wasn't me, but him. It could not have been us. 

Patrick, the porter, him that you hired, has come. 

Is it me you want ? It was them that did it. 

Whom do you think it was ? Who do you take me to be ? 

Were it me, I'd show him the difference. — Fielding. 

Let the same be she whom thou hast appointed. 

Whom do men say that I am ? — Bible. It was him who said it 

Slain are they both, proud leaders of the fight ; 

Him whom we served, and him who scorned our might. 



SENTENCES. — NO UNS AND PRONO UNS. 117 

General Remark, under Cases. 

Nouns and pronouns should be so used as not to 
leave the case ambiguous. 

The settler here the savage slew. (Which slew the other ?) 
And thus the son the fervent sire addressed. — Pope. 
And all the air a solemn stillness holds. — Gray. 
You well the children knew. — British Drama. 
I do not love him better than you. 
Forrest plays these pieces better than all others. 
Poetry has a measure as well as music. 
He suffered himself to assist his friends. 

Rule VIII. 

Every one of the boys brought their books. 

Nobody will ever intrust themselves to that boat again. 

The English language is defective in not having, in the third person, a singu- 
lar pronoun for the common gender. This often leads to an improper use of 
they, their, or them. In such cases the masculine pronoun is preferred when the 
antecedent is a noun of the common gender, and denotes a person ; and both the 
masculine and the feminine pronoun are used when the antecedent comprises 
both a masculine and a feminine noun. To small children and to inferior ani- 
mals, the pronoun it is sometimes applied. 

Every person has their own tastes. — Wotton. 

Every one should attend to their own business. 

Every person should try to improve their mind and heart. 

A person who is resolute, energetic, and watchful, is apt to suc- 
ceed in their undertakings. 

Each of our party carried a knapsack with them. 

You and your playmates must learn their lessons. 

The earth is my mother ; and I will recline upon its bosom. 

If there is anybody down there, let them answer. 

She took out the ashes, and gave it to a servant. Page 93. 

If you have any victuals left, we will help you eat it. 

When a bird is caught in a trap, they of course try to get out. P. 83. 

The regiment was much reduced in their numbers. Pp. 83, 85. 

The people can not be long deceived by its demagogues. 

The army being abandoned by its leaders, pursued meanwhile 
their miserable march. 

Let the construction be either singular throughout or plural throughout, but 
not both. 

The tongue is like a race-horse, which runs the faster the less 

weight it carries. — he carries. Or, — race-horse : it runs, etc. 

The pronominal construction should relate, throughout, either to the tongue 
or to the horse, but not to both. 



118 TEXT COURSE. 

An idler is a watch that wants both hands, 
As useless when he goes as when he stands. 
Here the second line relates more directly to the watch. 

I have sowed all my oats, and it is growing finely. 

Our language is not less refined than those of Italy, France, or Spain. 

A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or with the noun which the pro- 
noun represents. 

The peacock is fond of displaying its' gorgeous plumage. 

The hen looked very disconsolate, when its brood rushed into the pond. 

Horses is of the plural number, because they denote more than one. 

Every half a dozen boys should have its own bench. 

Poverty and wealth have each their own temptations. 

Discontent and sorrow manifested itself in his countenance. P. 96. 

One or the other of us must relinquish their claim. Page 96. 

No man or woman ever got rid of their vices, without a struggle. 

Say, " his or her vices," etc. When the antecedent is of the common gen- 
der, the masculine pronoun can be used; but when the opposite sexes are dis- 
tinctly mentioned, it is better to use a pronoun suitable to each antecedent than 
to use a pronoun suitable to one only. A different expression is sometimes still 
better. 

If any gentleman or lady wishes to have their fortune told, etc. 

Notice is hereby given to every person to pay their taxes. 

(Change the antecedent; say, " to all persons," etc.) 
Our teacher does not let any one of us do as they please. 
Every person and thing had its proper place assigned to it. — the — 
I do not know which one of the men finished their work first. 
Coffee and sugar are brought from the West Indies ; and large 

quantities of it are consumed annually. Page 96. 

Additional exercises, in the use of pronouns, will be given under Rule X. 

For further information, apply to either of the eight Professors. 

Say, " any one." — Either, neither, and each other, should be used in speaking 
of two only ; one another, in speaking of more. 

The two Smiths are related to one another. 

Pupils should be polite to each other. — N. Webster. 

What conscience dictates to be done, or warns me not to do, — 

. . . teach me more than hell to shun, . . . more than heaven pursue. 

When this and that are used in speaking of two, that should be applied to 
the more distant, the first-mentioned, or the absent; this to the nearer, the last- 
mentioned, or the present. 

Some put the bliss in action, some in ease : 
... call it pleasure ; and contentment, . . . 
Obs. 1. — A pronoun should not be added to its 

antecedent, when the antecedent alone would express 

the meaning better. 



SENTENCES. — NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 119 

John he went, and Mary she went ; but the rest they all staid at 
home. Henry Barton his book. (Apply also Rule III.) Mary John- 
son her book. These lots, if they had been sold sooner, they would 
have brought a better price. These wild horses having been once 
captured, they were soon tamed. It is indisputably true, his assertion ; 
though it seems erroneous. Man, though he has great variety of 
thoughts, yet they are all within his own breast. 

Obs. 2. — Pronouns should be so used that it may 
not be doubtful for what they stand. 

Pronouns are very indefinite words, and are therefore often liable to 
ambiguity, which is generally best avoided by substituting nouns. Since 
pronouns are substitutes for nouns, it is hardly proper to make a pro- 
noun represent an adjective or a predicate when a better expression can 
be found. 
If the lad should leave his father, lie would die. 

Substitute a noun for he, or change the order of the words. 
The king dismissed his minister without inquiry, who had never 

before done so unjust an act. 

Relative clauses should generally be placed as near to their antecedents as 
possible. 

He should never marry a woman in high life, that has no money. 
When a conjunction is to be supplied, it is called asyndedon. 

Say, " the figure is called," etc. (" When I see many its on a page, I always 
tremble for the writer." — Cobbett.) Nevertheless, to avoid clumsiness of ex- 
pression, pronouns may sometimes be allowed to remain even when somewhat 
liable to grammatical ambiguity, provided their meaning is sufficiently obvious 
to good common sense. 

When a man kills another from malice, it is called murder. 

Religion will afford us pleasure when others leave us. • 

The lord can not refuse to admit the heir of his tenant upon his death ; 
nor can he remove his present tenant so long as he lives. 

He wrote to that distinguished philosopher [Aristotle] in terms the most 
polite and flattering, begging of him to undertake his education, and 
to bestow upon him those useful lessons which his numerous avoca- 
tions would not allow him to bestow. — Goldsmith. 

Philip wrote .... Alexander's education .... his own numerous, etc. 

When own is added to the simple possessive pronouns, it expresses emphasis, 
or restricts the pronouns more definitely to a particular antecedent. The com- 
pound personal pronouns have a similar meaning; but, since own expresses 
possession with emphasis, they are used only in the nominative and the objective 
case. These compound pronouns are also used reflexively, or when a person's 
act affects himself. 

John told James that his horse had run away. (Change the sentence.) 

They flew to arms, and attacked Northumberland's horse, whom 

they put to death. — Hume. 
The law is inoperative, which is not right. 

Say, " and that it is so, is not right." 



120 TEXT COURSE. 

The servant took away the horse, which was unnecessary. 

The prisoners rebelled against the regulations of the establish* 

ment, of which we shall presently give an account. 
Mr. Dana asked Mr. Gore's leave to say a few words, which he did ; 

after which he retired from the Convention. — Elliot's Debates. 
When the Doctor brought his manuscript to the publisher, he told him 

it was a dry subject, and the printing could hardly be ventured upon 

unless he could enliven it with a little humor. 

Obs. 3. — Who is applied to persons, which to all 
other objects, and that to either. 

That is preferred to who or which, after an antecedent denoting both 
persons and things; after the word same; after the interrogative who; 
after the superlative degree ; and generally after it, or after an indefinite 
antecedent. 

Interrogative who asks for the name, or for some description ; which 
asks for a particular one of two or more already recognized ; and what 
asks for the kind of thing, the character, or the occupation. 

Those which are rich, should assist the poor and helpless. 

Eve gave of the fruit to the other creatures in Eden, who all ate of it, 

and so became mortal, with the sole exception of the phoenix, who 

refused to taste it, and consequently remained immortal. 
Was it the wind, or you, who shut the door ? 
The horse and rider which we saw, fell in the battle. 
Of all the congregations whom I ever saw, this was the largest. 

The entire collection of persons is evidently regarded as one thing. P. 83. 
This was certainly the largest congregation which I ever saw. 
All the people which were present, joined in the prayer. 
There was a certain householder which planted a vineyard. — Bible. 
A butterfly, which thought himself an accomplished traveler, etc. 
Who is the man who dares to make these charges? 
These are the same sums which we had last week. 
Adjectives which express number, are called numerals. 
Pitt was the pillar who upheld the state. 

I am the same as I was. I gave all what I had. [the Alamo. 

It is the best which can be got. The heroic souls which defended 
This lubberly boy we called FalstafF, who was but another name 

for fat and fun. ( A mere name is a thing.') 
The most tremendous civil war which history records. — Newspaper. 
Who ever became great, who was not ambitious? 
Who of these boys has lost a knife ? 

The rooks, who had built their nests above, were cawing. — Dickens. 
With the return of spring came four martins, who were evidently the 

same which had been bred under those eaves the previous year. 



SENTENCES. — ARTICLES AND ADJECTIVES. 121 

Obs. 4. — It is improper to mix different kinds of 
pronouns in the same construction. 

Know thyself, and do your duty. You have mine, and I have thine. 
Ere you remark another's fault, bid thy own conscience look within. 
The poor man who can read, and that has a taste for reading, can find 

entertainment at home. 
The man who came with us, and that was dressed in black, is the 

preacher. Such as yours, or which you bought. — or such as — 
But what we saw last, and which pleased us most, was the farce. 
Policy keeps coining truth in her mints, — such truth as it can tolerate ; 

and every die except its own she breaks, and casts away. 

ARTICLES AND ADJECTIVES. 

An Article is the word the, a, or an, placed before a 
noun to limit its meaning. 

There are but two articles: the, the definite; and 
A or an, the indefinite. 

The points out a particular object, group, or kind. 

A or an shows that one of a kind is meant, but no 
particular one. 

The generally implies some previous recognition of the object ; and 
a or an, that there are other objects of the same kind. From the Saxon 
EttC, one, we have an, a, and one. An and a are but an earlier and a later 
form of the same word. They have also the same meaning, and are 
therefore called one and the same article. An is used before vowel 
sounds ; and a, before consonant sounds. 

An Adjective is a word used to qualify or limit the 
meaning of a noun or pronoun. 

Adjectives denote form, as round, hilly ; color, as white, blue; spiritual 
qualities, as thoughtful, affectionate; material qualities, as hard, sour; 
substance, as wooden, sandy ; place, as yonder, African; time, as moment- 
ary, eternal; number, as Jive, fifth, few ; origin, as Spenserian; nation- 
ality, as French, Irish ; quantity, as much, little; relation, as dependent, 
useful; or some particular specification, as every, any, such. 

Adjectives have been divided into common, as good, strong ; proper, 
as Newtonian, Asiatic; participial, as written, purling ; compound, as 
rock-built, sky-blue; numeral, as four, fourth ; and pronominal, as this, all, 
each. But the following is a better classification. 



122 TEXT COURSE. 

Classes. 

Adjectives are either descriptive or definitive. 
A Descriptive Adjective describes or qualifies. 
A Definitive Adjective merely specifies or limits. 

In the phrase, " a sour apple," sour is a descriptive adjective, for it describes 
the apple; but in the phrase, "this apple," this is a definitive adjective, for it 
merely specifies what apple is meant, without describing it. 

A Numeral Adjective is a definitive adjective that 
expresses number. 

Numerals are divided into ca/dinal, o/dinal, and 

indefinite. 

1. A cardinal numeral tells how many; as, one, two. 

2. An ordinal numeral tells which one ; as, first, second. 

3. An indefinite numeral expresses number indefinitely ; as, few. 

A Pronominal Adjective is a definitive adjective that 
is sometimes used as a pronoun. 
Pronominals are divided into, — 

1. Distributive, which relate to objects taken separately. 
Ex. — Each, every, either, neither, many a. 

2. Demonstrative, which point out objects definitely. 
Ex. — This, these, that, those, yon, yonder, same, former, latter. 

3. Indefinite, which relate to objects indefinitely. 

Ex. — Any, other, another, one, both, all, some, such, several, etc. 

Such words are called adjective pronouns when they are used as pronouns, 
and pronominal adjectives when they are used as adjectives. Not all the pro- 
nominal adjectives can ever be used as pronouns, but they are still called pro- 
nominal; for they have the same general meaning, though not always the same 
syntax. 

Changes. 

Adjectives have comparison and number. 

Comparison, in the use of adjectives and adverbs, 
implies that the idea can be expressed in different 
degrees. 

There are three degrees of comparison ; the posi- 
tive, comparative, and superlative. 

Positive. An adjective is in the positive degree, when 
it expresses simply the quality ; as, hard, good. 

Comparative. An adjective is in the comparative de- 



SENTENCES. — ARTICLES AND ADJECTIVES. 123 

gree, when it expresses the quality in a higher or lower 
degree ; as, harder ', better, less hard. 

Superlative. An adjective is in the superlative degree, 
when it expresses the quality in the highest or lowest 
degree ; as, hardest, best, least hard. 

Some adjectives have no positive ; as, nether, nethermost. 

Some adjectives have no comparative ; as, top, topmost. 

Some adjectives are themselves a species of comparatives ; as, 

superior, inferior, junior. 

The adjectives of this last class are hybrids, — original comparatives that 
have partially become positives. 

Very few adjectives have number; as, this, these; that, those. 
But many are themselves expressions of number ; as, few, many, 
three, twenty. 

Comparison is expressed,— 

1. By different words ; as, good, better, test; bad, ivorse, worst. 

2. By different endings ; as, great, great-er, great-es£. 

3. By placing more or most, less or least, before the positive. 

To express degrees below the positive, less and least are used, 
Positive, good; comparative, less good; superlative, least good. 

To express degrees above the positive, words of one syllable 
are compared by annexing er for the comparative degree, and est 
for the superlative. 

Positive, hard; comparative, harder ; superlative, hardest. 

Words of two syllables that end with y or le, or have the accent 
on the second syllable, are also compared by annexing er and est, 
Happy, happier, happiest; able, abler, ablest; polite, politer, politest. 

Other words of two syllables, all words of more syllables, and 
sometimes words of one syllable, are compared by more and 
most. 

Faithful, more faithful, most faithful; industrious, more industrious, etc. 

" The more nice and elegant parts." — Johnson. 

" Homer's eyes were the most quick and piercing I ever saw." — Swift. 

" A foot more light, a step more true, 
Ne'er from the heath-flower dashed the dew." — Scott. 

Some of the most common adjectives -and adverbs are not com- 
pared according to the foregoing rules, and are therefore said to 
be irregular. 

Ex. — Good, better, best; well, better, best. — Such words can not be 
learned by rule, but must be learned individually ; and we shall therefore 
give them hereafter, under the head of Exercises. 



124 TEXT COURSE. 

When a part of a compound or derived word is changed in 

form, it is generally changed in the same way as if it stood alone. 

Boatman, boatmen. Good-looMng, feeder-looking, fcesMooking. 

Dormouse, dormice. Long-legged, longer-legged, longest-legged. 

Landlord, landlady. Overtake, overtook, overtaken. 

Man-servant, men-servants. Undergo, underwent, undergone, 

A word can not be compared with propriety, when it denotes 
what can not exist in different degrees. 

Ex. — Equal, square, dead, two, first, Italian, four-footed, universal. 

Nouns are frequently used as adjectives ; as, " a gold watch ; " 
" California gold." And, on the other hand, adjectives are 
frequently used as nouns or pronouns; as, "the poor and the 
rich; 99 "from this to that. 99 

Questions. — What is an Article? How are the articles classified? How 
is the used ? How is a or an used ? Where should a be used ? Where should 
an be used ? What is an Adjective ? Into what two chief classes are adjectives 
divided? What is a descriptive adjective? — a definitive? — a numeral? — a 
pronominal? Into what classes are the numeral adjectives divided? — the pro- 
nominal ? What grammatical properties do adjectives have ? What is compari- 
son ? How many degrees of comparison, and what are they called? When is 
an adjective in the positive degree ? — in the comparative ? — in the superlative ? 
How is comparison expressed ? What words are compared by er and est ? — by 
more and most ? When are less and least used ? What adjectives are said to be 
compared irregularly? Do adjectives have number? Give some examples. 
Can all adjectives be compared ? When not ? Are nouns ever used as adjec- 
tives ?— adjectives as nouns ? What is said of derivative adjectives ? 

Exercises. 

A derivative adjective generally signifies 'having of,' 'be- 
longing to, 9 6 relating to, 9 or ' resembling % 9 and most of the de- 
rivative adjectives are formed from nouns or verbs. 

Form adjectives from the following words as indicated; and spell the 
words, observing the rules for spelling, and making the euphonic changes : — 

Natur-e, -al, nation, notion, origin, music, autumn, tropic, 
brute, accident, person, continue, form, instrument, constitu- 
tion ; senator, -ial, manor, part, adverb, proverb, minister, 
commerce, province, office, matter, mater-; idea, -I; con- 
sequen-ce, -tial, influence, essence; benefi-t, -rial; spirit, 
-ual, sense, habit ; nose, nas-, pope, pap-, feast, fest- ; 
Europe, -an, epicure, suburb, Italy; Africa, -n, America, 
Sparta; beech, -en, birch, wood, wool, earth, wheat, brass, 
braz- ; north, -em, south, east, west; leather, -n ; serpent, 
-ine, adamant, amaranth ; crystal, -line ; attend, -ant, defy, 
buoy, triumph, discord, expect, observe, luxury, toler-ate, 
radiate ; solve, -ent, consist, abhor ; subserve, -tent, suffice ; 
fraud, -ulent ; compose, -ponent ; rose, -ate, consider, affec- 



SENTENCES. — ARTICLES AND ADJECTIVES. 125 

tion, compassion, g\6b-e; define, -ite, in-, compose, require, 
-site ; wretch, -ed, fork, tuft, rag, age, gift, point, arm, vein, 
hoof, horn, wing, belt, band, short leg, high mind, left 
hand ; column, -ar, consul ; globe, -tela?; circle, title, muscle, 
particle ; detest, -able, eat, drink, change, honor, utter, value, 
pay, teach, answer, avoid, enjoy, pass, respect, move, man- 
age, distinguish, vary, pardon, inflam-e, desire, pleasure, 
tune, compare, agree, favor, remark, reason, fashion, toler- 
ate, venerate, execrate, separate, in-; resist, -ible, com- 
press, impress, fuse, force, deduce, destroy, destruct-, accede, 
access-, admit, perceive, percept-, divide, divis- ; infant, -tie, 
puer (boy), merchant, mercant- ; art, -fid, mind, thought, 
peace, hope, brim, fret, waste, cheer, fear, youth, tune, play, 
sin, shame, wake, law, mourn, truth, mercy, duty, beauty j 
art, -less (opposite of ful), blame, faith, fear, help, hope, 
name, fruit, worth, blood, beard, thank, ground, guilt, 
thought, sleep, friend, sense, mercy ; angel, ^ic or -ical, lyre, 
satire, history, symmetry, Satan ; vertex, -ical, dropsy, ora- 
tor, cylinder; pathos, -etic, theory; barometer, -etric, trigo- 
nometry; problem, -atic, system; drama, -tic, dogma, 
aroma, roman-ce ; color, -ific, dolor ; science, -tific ; gram- 
ma-r, -tical, fantas-y, -tic or -tical ; pharisee, -saic ; tragedy, 
-gic ; Plato, -nic ; salt, -ish, yellow, green, sweet, slave, 
dwarf, fop, knave, self, wolf, hog, boor, scare, skit-, Spain ; 
toil, -some, tire, lone, win, trouble, frolic, burden ; create, 
-ive (generally active), attract, invent, prevent, progress, 
instruct, digest, effect, express, impress, conduce, imitate, 
indicate, nominate, speculate, execute, distribute, attribute, 
demonstrate, designate, retain, retent-, attend ; figure, -ative, 
affirm, compare, prepare, talk, declare, imagine, conserve ; 
define, -it ive ; perceive, -ceptive, deceive ; presume, -sump- 
tive, consume, assume ; produce, product-, destroy ; disjoin, 
-junctive ; adhere, -hesive, cohere, corrode, decide, persuade, 
conclude, defend, comprehend ; impel, -pulsive, repel ; bulb, 
-ous, pore, pomp, clamor, joy, grieve, ruin, peril, danger, 
scandal, murder, poison, venom, mountain, zeal, solicit, 
covet, blaspheme; bile, -ious, perfidy, vary, caprice, grace, 
space, fuiy, injury, victory, envy, study, industry, labor, 
melody, harmony ; pity, -eous, duty, beauty, courage, court ; 
tenipest, -uous, contempt, tumult, spirit ; enormity, -mous ; 
merit, -orious ; bulb, -iferous; grass, -y, rock, sand, flint, 
hill, shade, ice, fleece, swamp, meal, flower, curl, mud, dust, 
milk, bush, hand, need, speed, wind, word, fog, mist, cloud, 



126 TEXT COURSE. 

snow, frost, dew, rain, storm, wealth, grease, flesh, sponge, 
sleep, heart, pearl, oil, earth, stick ; fire, fiery ; clay, -ey, 
glue ; man, -like, god, war, child ; friend, -ly, man, god, 
beast, lord, prince, love, court, sloven, home, cost, year, hour, 
time, day, night, brother, father, state ; element, -ary, 
imagine, parliament, compliment, supplement, subsidy; 
contradict, -ory, conciliate, declare, satisfy, explain ; up, 
-ward, out, in, down, home ; grot, -esque, statue, Arab. 

The English language has about 88O adjectives, ending with ous ; 640, 
■with able ; 600, with edf 380, with ive ; 380, with ie or leal / 360, with 
y ; 325, with ent or ant; 250, with al; 200, with ic ; 200, with less ; 
130, with ful; 140, with ible; 135, with ly ; 70, with ish; and 30, with 
some. 



It would be also well if the pupil could define the words, or some of 
them; and make or find sentences in which they are properly used. To know 
what a word means, and how to use it, is probably quite as valuable an attain- 
ment as to know of what part of speech it is. 

So learn the following irregular adjectives, that when one of a set is given, 
you can give the entire set : — 

Good, better, best ; bad, ill, or evil, worse, ivorst ; much 
or many, more, most ; little, less, least ; fore, former, fore- 
most or first ; hind, hinder, hindmost ; low, lower, loioest 
or lowermost ; far, farther, farthest ; (forth,) further, far- 
thest ; near, nearer, nearest or next; late, later ox latter, 
latest or last ; (later and latest refer to time ; latter and 
last, generally to order in place ;) old, older or elder, oldest 
or eldest ; (elder ancl eldest are applied to persons only ; 
older and oldest, to persons or things ;) in, inner, inmost or 
innermost ; out, outer or utter, outmost, utmost, or outer- 
most ; up, upper, uppermost ;■ no positive — nether, nether- 
most ; under, undermost ; hither, hithermost ; no com- 
parative — • top, topmost ; head, headmost ; north, north- 
most ; southern, southernmost / a few words are thus made 
superlative by annexing most, 

Mention and spell the three degrees of comparison : -** 

Strong, weak, light, rough, nice, coarse, fierce, white, 
ripe, thin, slim, dim, fit, hot, fat, glad, big, droll, coy, dry, 
sprightly, manly, gentle, noble, idle, discreet, remote, sub- 
lime, profound. 

Compare, of the following adjectives, those which can be compared : — 

Studious, near, good, evil, melodious, nigh, tuneful, saucy, 
eloquent, expressive, nimble, shallow, hollow, late, many, 
much, few, little, old, globing, accomplished, expert, half- 



SENTENCES. — ARTICLES AND ADJECTIVES. 127 

finished, full, counterfeit, graceful, worthless, bottomless, 
fundamental, ornamental, vernal, green, sluggish, sunburnt, 
free, first. 

Compare by using less and least : — 

Broad, convenient, confident, oily, troublesome, thick, joy- 
ful, sorrowful, exorbitant, exact, indulgent, handsome. 

Join suitable adjectives to each of the following nouns : — 

Sun, field, fountain, trees, garden, horse, willow, man, 
woman, pen, ink, day, wood, boys, thoughts, feelings, con- 
duct. 

Relations. 
Articles and Adjectives relate to nouns and pronouns. 

An article is merely designative ; as, " The man." 
An adjective, or adjective expression, may be, — 

1. Assump'tive; as, " A beautiful country lay before them." [them. 

2. Appos'itive ; as, " A country, beautiful in many respects, lay before 

3. Predicative ; as, " The country was beautiful" 

4. Fac'titive ; as, " Spring makes the country beautiful." 

These words are not the best for expressing comprehensively the syntax of 
adjectives; but we are often obliged to accept bad nomenclature, simply be- 
cause it has been already established. 

Participles, when not used in the sense of nouns, have the general 
construction of adjectives. Hence, — 

Hub IX, — An article, an adjective, or a participle, 
belongs to the noun or pronoun to which it relates. 

Explanation. — " The girl brought a large rose just refreshed by a show- 
er." The what? a what? What kind of rose? Observe that both large and 
refreshed describe the rose. 

1. When an article stands only before the first of two or more con- 
nected nouns, it belongs to them jointly if they denote but one person 
or thing, or more viewed as one ; if not, it belongs to the first noun, 
and is understood before each of the others ; as, " I saw Webster, the 
great statesman and orator ; " " A \ man and horse passed by the \ house 
and lot ; " " The \ man, [the] woman, and [the] child were drowned." 
The belongs to both statesman and orator ; a belongs to both man and 
horse; and The, in the last example, belongs to man only, and is un- 
derstood before each of the remaining nouns. 

2. When two or more adjectives come between an article and a plural 
noun, they sometimes qualify each only a part of what the noun denotes ; 
as, " The New and Old Testaments " = The New Testament and the 
Old Testament ; not, The New Testaments and the Old Testaments. 



128 TEXT COURSE. 

Note V. — A singular or a plural adjective must agree in num- 
ber with the noun or pronoun to which it relates. 

This Note, rather than Rule IX., should be applied in parsing adjectives that 
express number. 

Punctuation. — 1. Three or more serial terms of any kind, or 
two co-ordinate terms without a connective, are separated each 
from the other by a comma. 

2. An adjective phrase or clause, if restrictive, is not set off; 
but if parenthetic, or additive rather than restrictive, it is set off 
by the comma. 

For examples, see below. — The teacher should explain restrictive, and other 
difficult words. 

Exercises. 

The hind of article or adjective, to what it belongs, and the Rule : — 
Words. — We heard the sullen billows roar along the distant 
shore. I bring* fresh showers for the thirsting flowers. The rip- 
pling waters make a pleasant moan. Silent and mournful sat an 
Indian chief. The Socratic school arose from the Ionic. (Supply 
school. A noun is sometimes understood.) The first \ great en- 
terprise was the Argonautic expedition. The two sisters are knit 
together in love, like a double cherry. On either side appeared a 
formidable shape. The upright judge inclines to neither side. 
That field has been in cultivation four years. The frst car is not 
full, having but one man in it. She is a modest and beautiful 
woman, with eyes bright, blue, and affectionate. Before us was a 
Jbroad, deep, clear, and winding river, of such \ remarkable smooth- 
ness, that we could not tell wliich way it flowed. Her brow was 
smooth as monumental alabaster. A dreary plain, forlorn and 
wild, before them lay. She was the prettiest little maiden that 
I ever saw. The noblest spirits sometimes grow up in the ob- 
scurest places (Canning). Most potent, grave, and reverend 
seigniors. Redder yet those fires shall glow on Linden's hill of 
blood-stained snow. He was deserted at his utmost need by 
those bis former bounty fed. A happy mocking-bird sung on the 
topmost bough. And now, nearer, clearer, deadlier than before, 
broke in once more that dismal sound. 

" He is deformed, crooked, old, and sere, 

Ill-faced, worse-bodied, shapeless everywhere ; 

Vicious, ungentle, foolish, blunt, unkind ; 

Stigmatical in making, worse in mind." — Shak. 

The is the definite article, and belongs to billows according to Rule IX. (Re- 
peat the Rule.) Sullen is a descriptive adjective, and belongs to billows accord- 
ing to Rule IX. First is an ordinal numeral definitive adjective, and belongs to 
enterprise, or great enterprise, according to Rule IX. Sometimes a modifier 
extends its meaning over the principal term as already modified by a previous 
modifier. — After all these sentences have been used as we have indicated, they 



SENTENCES.— ARTICLES AND ADJECTIVES. 129 

may be again used to drill the pupils in the degrees of comparison ; thus : Sullen 
is an adjective in the positive degree; compared — positive sullen, comparative 
more sullen, superlative most sullen. 

Tell which is the adjective; and whether it is assumptive, appositive, 
predicative, or factitive, in its syntax : — 

A blue violet. The violet is blue. Large violets, blue and 
fragrant, nestled in the fresh young grass. God paints the violet 
blue, the lily white. The trees highest on the mountain are 
most dwarfish. The heavy rains made it difficult to advance ; for 
the mud was almost bottomless, along roads always remarkable for 
their stiff clay. 

Participles and Infinitives used as Adjectives. — Broken light- 
nings flashed from gathering clouds. From yonder ivy-mantled 
tower the moping owl does to the moon complain. The visit was 
surprising to me, and became very interesting. White, curling foam 
rode on the mingling waters. Such are the herds of fluttering, 
loitering, cringing, and begging vagrants that make London, vast 
as it is, a crowded coop. I have a coat to mend. (What kind of 
coat ?) Have you an ax to grind ? Have you a ground ax ? The 
house to be built has been commenced. (Which house ?) 

Broken is a participle, used here as a descriptive adjective belonging to bil- 
lows, according to Rule IX. Ivy-mantled is a compound adjective, contracted 
from the participial phrase mantled with ivy ; and it belongs to tower, according 
to Rule IX. 

Phrases used as Adjectives. — The single words used as ad- 
jectives are insufficient to express all the adjective ideas. To 
supply the deficiency, phrases and clauses are used. Many of 
these have the same meaning as the single adjectives, as in the 
phrases" a ivise man" and "a man of wisdom." But sometimes 
phrases and clauses supply different or peculiar ideas ; " the ad- 
ditional sign," for instance, does not mean " the sign of addition" 
and " a golden purse " is not " a purse of gold." The most com- 
mon adjective ideas are expressed by single words ; while phrases 
and clauses are used to express those more specific descriptions 
which every person has the privilege of making, to suit his own 
discourse. Prepositional phrases are the most common adjective 
phrases. Most of these begin with the preposition of by, at, to, in, 
on, upon, from, for, with, without, through, after, before, behind, be- 
tween, above, below, over, or under. The other principal phrases, 
used frequently as adjectives, are the participial and the infinitive. 
(See pp. 36, 37.) Possessive and appositive terms have also the 
general meaning of adjectives ; but they are nouns and pronouns 
too, and have the inflections of nouns and pronouns, for which 
reason they must be classed with them in parsing. 

The home of the brave is the home of the free. (What home ?) 

He is a man of piety and courage. (What kind of man ?) Bayard 

was a soldier without fear and without reproach. The road to 

ruin is broad and downhill. Bird of the broad and sweeping 

9 



130 TEXT COURSE. 

wing, thy home is high in heaven. Rome then was but a weedy 
solitude by Tiber's yellow stream. (As if " Tiberian solitude/') 
The house on the hill is a farmer's cottage. The pleasure of 
thinking is one of the greatest. There was a man sent from God, 
whose name was John. (What man ?) The rule to love thy 
neighbor as thyself, comprises our whole duty to man. (What 
rule ?) He is never at a loss how to help himself (What loss ?) 
Along the west bank of the river was a high bluff decorated with a 
profusion of cedars. We found the house empty, deserted even 
by the rats and mice. A man carrying a heavy burden passed a 
cow quietly grazing, and thought his own life to be less desired 
than hers. A steel-clad fleet prowled on a moon-lit sea. 

Of the brave is a prepositional phrase, used here as an adjective belonging to 
home. Sent from God is a participial phrase, used here as an adjective belong- 
ing to man. Steel-clad is a compound adjective, used as an abridged expression 
for the phrase clad in steely and belonging to fleet. Most compound adjectives 
are but phrases abridged. 

Clauses used as Adjectives, — Clauses that are used as ad- 
jectives, generally begin with relative pronouns, sometimes with 
adverbs or conjunctions ; or they are attached, by means of these 
words, to the modified noun or pronoun. 

The man who reasons in a passion, seldom reasons correctly. 
(What man ?) Call for Simon, ivhose surname is Peter. Spirit 
that breathest through my lattice, thou that bringest coolness from the 
ocean world. He prefers that position in which he can be most use- 
ful to his country. I am no orator, as Brutus is; but a plain 
blunt man that love my friend. (See C. S. Gram., p. 212.) There 
is a kind of selfishness which is constantly on the watch for selfish- 
ness in others. Pure love is a fountain that flows forth in many 
different rivulets. We were now in a place from which there icas 
no such outlet \ as could be passed unperceived. Give what you can 
spare. (Substitute that which for what.) Not a soldier discharged 
his farewell shot o'er the grave where our hero teas buried. The 
books which you read, the company which you keep, and the em- 
ployment in which you are engaged, will have great influence on 
your future life and happiness. 

Who reasons in a passion, is a descriptive adjective clause, belonging to 
man. 

Miscellaneous. — A Florida man last week killed fourteen feet 
of alligator, done up in one original package that weighed eight 
hundred pounds. Now the waters purl, the fresh winds blow, and 
the flowers are bent by the buzzing bee. Amidst the green isles 
of glittering seas, fragrant forests perfume the breeze;. and strange 
bright birds on their starry wings bear the rich hues of all glorious 
things. The setting sun and the evening star still remind us of 
the scenes that are past. There are four or five great glens, run- 
ning up into a range of lofty hills, until they can run no longer, 
and are stopped by being abruptly strangled by Nature. " The 
human mind," said the orator, " will be peaceful only when free : 



SENTENCES. — ARTICLES AND ADJECTIVES. 131 

the air that would be healthful to the earth, the water that would 
enrich it, and the heat that would ripen it, tear it when caged up." 

In the foregoing exercises, the pupil may mention the article, the adjective, 
the adjective phrase or clause, the kind, the properties, and the Rule; so as to 
make essentially complete parsing. Thus : A is the indefinite article ; it relates 
here to man, and belongs to it, according to Rule IX. (Repeat it.) Florida is 
a noun, used here as a definitive adjective, and belonging to man, according to 
Rule IX. Last is a definitive adjective, from late; compared — pos. late, comp. 
later j superl. last j in the superl. deg., and belongs to week, according to Rule IX. 

Questions. — To what do articles and adjectives relate ? In what four dif- 
ferent ways can an adjective be used in syntax ? Repeat Rule IX. ; — Note V. ; 

— the two rules for punctuation. How may an adjective be modified ? What 
formula is given for parsing an article ? — an adjective? — a noun ? — a pronoun? 

— for analyzing a sentence ? (See below, and page 154.) 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

For adjective modifiers, see page 153. 

Aii Adjective may be modified, — 

1. By an adverb. 

2. By a prepositional phrase. 

3. By an infinitive or infinitive phrase. 

4. By a clause. 

Ex. — 1. "It is very cold." (How cold?) 2. "She is free from preju- 
dices." (Free in what respect?) 3. " His letters are hard to read." (Hard 
in what respect?) " He is quick in feeling injuries, but always ready to for- 
give them." 4. "I was so glad that it was but a dream." (Glad as to 
what?) 

Article. — An article, and why ; Jdnd, and why ; to what it be- 
longs, and according to what Rule. 

Adjective. — An adjective, and why ; Jdnd, and why ; whether 
compared or not, and how ; the degree, and why ; to what it be- 
longs, and according to what Rule. 

The second large tree was a drooping elm. 

Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is The 
second large tree; tree is the subject-nominative, and it is modified by the 
article The, and the adjectives second and large. Was a drooping elm is the 
predicate; was is the predicate-verb, which is combined with elm, a term 
explanatory of the subject, and elm is modified by the article a and the par- 
ticipial adjective drooping. Or say : Was is the predicate-verb ; its adjunct is 
elm ; and the adnouns of elm are a and drooping. 

The is an article, — a word placed before a noun to show how it is 

applied; definite, it shows that some particular tree is meant; and it 

belongs to tree, according to Rule IX. : An article belongs to the noun to 

ichich it relates. 

It is not necessary, in parsing, to repeat more of a Rule than the example 
requires. 

Abr. — The is the definite article ; and it belongs to tree, etc. 



132 TEXT COURSE. 

Second is an adjective, — a word used to qualify or limit the mean- 
ing of a noun ; definitive, it shows what tree is meant ; numeral, it ex- 
presses number ; of the ordinal kind, it denotes order ; and it belongs to 
tree, according to Rule IX. 

Abr. — Second is a numeral definitive adjective, of the ordinal kind, 
and belongs to tree. 

Large is an adjective, — a word used to qualify or limit the mean- 
ing of a noun ; descriptive, it describes the tree; compared — pos. large, 
comp. larger, superl. largest; in the positive degree, it expresses simply 
the quality ; and it belongs to tree, according to Rule IX. 

Abr. — Large is a descriptive adjective; (compare it;) in the positive 
degeee, and belongs to tree. 

Drooping is a participle, used here as an adjective, in the positive 
degree ; and it belongs to elm, according to Rule IX. 
Abbreviated Parsing. 

Let da stand for " definite article ; " ia, for indefinite ; dpa, for de- 
scriptive adjective ; dfa, for definitive ; pd, for positive degree ; cd, for 
comparative ; and sd, for superlative. 

S = P = subject and predicate. 
The — da, and belongs to tree. Rule IX. 

Second — dfa, numeral, ordinal, and belongs to tree. Rule IX. 
Large — dpa, compared, pd, and belongs to tree. Rule IX. 
Tree — en, ng, 3p, sn, nc — subject of was. Rule II. 
A — ia, belongs to elm. Rule IX. 
Drooping — dpa, pd, belongs to elm. Rule IX. 
Elm — en, ng, 3p, sn, nc, predicate-nominative, agreeing with tree. Rule 

VII. 

Exercises. 

Analyze the sentences; parse the articles and adjectives; also the nouns and pronouns! — 

1. The sweetest flowers fringed the little stream. 2. The 
summer breezes blow soft and cool. 3. Up springs the 
lark, shrill-voiced and loud, the messenger of morn. 4. 
National debt makes the rich richer, and the poor poorer. 
5. On the bank stood a tall waving ash, sound to the very 
top. 6. There are two larger pear-trees in the second row. 
7. The trees that grow on the highest land, are generally 
the smallest. 8. The Atlantic Ocean is three thousand 
miles wide. 9. It is well to be temperate in all things 
whatsoever. 10. It is better to die poor than to acquire 
riches dishonorably. 



SENTENCES. — ARTICLES AND ADJECTIVES. 133 

11. Twelve Spartan virgins, noble, young, and fair, 
With violet wreaths adorned their flowing hair. 

12. There, with a light and easy motion, 

The fan coral sweeps through the clear deep sea ; 
And the yellow and scarlet tufts of ocean 
Are bending like corn on the upland lea. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Under Rule IX. 
Articles. 

Obs. 1. — A should be used when the next word 

after it begins with a consonant sound ; an should be 

used when the next word after it begins with a vowel 

sound. 

That is, an should be used before a, e, i, o, u not equivalent to 
yu y y equivalent to i, silent h, and h faintly sounded when the next 
syllable after its own has the chief accent ; in all other cases, a 
should be used. Initial u long, eu, w, o in one, and y articulated 
with a vowel after it, represent consonant sounds. 

We encamped in a open field. Such an one said so. 

It is an useful exercise. He is a honest man. 

Argus is said to have had an hundred eyes. 

There was not an human being on the place. 

A heroic deed it was. It is an universal complaint. 

An ubiquitous quack. — Poe. An united people. — Jefferson. 

An hundred times. — Swift. It seems a easy thing. — Dickens. 

When h is not silent, and there is not much hiatus, there is some tendency to 
give always the preference to a; as, "A historical sketch." — Irving. "An 
historical sketch," however, is rather better authorized. 

Obs. 2. — A or an denotes an indefinite one of sev- 
eral ; the denotes the only one, the class, or a particular 
one of several. 

He does not own as much as the fifth part of what you own. 

No particular fifth part was meant; and there are more fifths than one, in a whole. 

An oak is a tree of great durability. That noble animal, a horse. 

The assertion may not be true of any one tree ; but it is true of the class in general. 

A lion is bold. A pink is a very common species of flower. 
Sometimes one article is improperly used for another. 



134 TEXT COURSE. 

When a whole is put for the part, or the part for a whole, the 
figure is called synec'doche. 

Obs. 3. — The article the is frequently needed to 
point out a class more definitely ; and when connected 
descriptive words refer to different persons or things, 
an article is generally needed before each of the words. 
The Indians are descendants of the aborigines of this country. 
Wisest and best men sometimes commit errors. 
Men who are indolent, generally complain of hard times. 
Trees which bore not, were cut down. 

We never say, " Tree which bears not, is cut down ; " hut, " The tree which," 
etc. It is worthy of notice, however, that who or which may require the article 
where that would he of itself sufficiently restrictive to dispense with it; as, 
44 In thoughts that breathe, and words that burn." 

A black and white calf were the only two I saw. 
The white and black inhabitants amount to several thousands. 
A beautiful stream flowed between the old and new mansion. 
The sick and wounded were left at this place. — A. Jackson. 

Obs. 4. — When connected descriptive words refer 
to the same person or thing, the article can generally 
be used only before the first of the words. 

A white and a black calf is one calf with two colors. 

There is another and a better world. 

My friend was married to a sensible and an amiable woman. 

She is not so good a cook as a washerwoman. 

Fire is a better servant than a master. 

I am a better arithmetician than a grammarian. 

Everett, the patriot, the statesman, and the orator, should be invited. 

The earth is a sphere, a globe, or a ball. 

The Old and the New Testaments make the Bible. 

Better: " The Old Testament and the New make the Bible; " or, " The Old 
and the New Testament make the Bible." 

The first and the second pages were our first lesson. [broke. 

The terror of the Spanish and the French monarchies. — Boling- 

Either singular, and two articles; or plural, and hut one article. 

0l3 S# 5 # — The article is commonly omitted, — 

1. When a word is used merely as a title. 

2. When a word is spoken of merely as a word or name. 



SENTENCES.— ARTICLES AND ADJECTIVES. 135 

3. When we refer to the kind generally, or to only a part 
indefinitely. 

The highest officer of a State is styled a Governor. 
Santa Anna now assumed the title of a Dictator. 
The original signification of knave was a boy. — N. Webster. 
The ancients supposed the air, the earth, the water, and the fire, to 

be the elements of all material things. 
Reason was given to a man to control his passions. 
What kind of a man is he ? What sort of a thing is it ? 

A kind or sort is comprised in the general class, rather than in a single object. 

A cypress is a curious species of a tree. 

I have had a dull sort of a headache all day. [tongues. 

The Tennessee and the Mississippi are names from the Indian 

The whites of America are the descendants of the Europeans. 

When no article should be used, the sense implies what, rather than who or 
which. 

Adjectives. 

Obs. 1. — Them should not be used as an adjective, 
in place of those. 

Them boys are very lazy. Give me them books. 
What do you ask for them peaches ? Take away them things. 
Let some of them boys sit on some of them other benches. 
Them are good mackerels. Them are my sentiments. 

Obs. 2. — Adjectives should not be compared, when 

their meaning does not allow or require it ; and those 

which are compared, should be compared in the most 

appropriate manner, 

It is the most universal opinion. This is more preferable than that. 

Incorrect: universal can not be compared with propriety; hut general 
can, and it would also express the meaning intended, — therefore the sentence 
should be, " It was the most general opinion." Or say, Universal can not be 
compared with propriety, therefore most should be omitted ; the sentence should 
be, " It was the universal opinion." 

Virtue confers supremest dignity on man, and should be his chiefest 

desire. A more perpendicular line. (A line more nearly.} 
I think the rose is the beautifullest of flowers. 
lie is the awkwardest fellow I ever saw. 
lie lives in the fartherest house on the street. 
This is badder, but the other is worser still. 



136 TEXT COURSE. 

It is the strangest, shockingest, and pitifullest story I ever heard. 

It is not so universally known as you think. 

Say, " not so generally " etc. ; for so expresses degree, and therefore implies 
comparison. 

I hope the people are more uneorrupt than their leaders. 

Say, " less corrupt than their leaders." 
Our sight is the most perfect of our senses. — Addison. (Allowable.) 

That is, it comes nearer to perfection than any of the rest. 

Hemarfc, — Since there are adjectives that have a fixed or absolute meaning", 
we are sometimes at a loss for words that express approximations to this fixed 
or high state of quality. In such cases it seems best to apply the words to the 
partial meaning, and then compare them. " Aristides was the most just of the 
Athenians," is better than u Aristides was the least unjust of the Athenians; " 
for the latter implies that the Athenians were all knaves, and he was simply not 
the worst one. Such expressions as " the most nearly just " have sometimes a 
stiff and pedantic air. 

Obs. 3. — Double comparatives and superlatives 
should be avoided. 

The office could not have been given to a more worthier man. 
A farmer's life is the most happiest. The most unkindest cut. 
She is the most loveliest one of the sisters. 
She seemed more lovelier to me than ever before. — Croly. 
The lesser quantity I remove to the other side. 

The ending er, of the comparative degree, is equivalent to the word more. 
Nothing can be more worse — worser. 
These were the least happiest years of my life. 
This was the most unwisest thing you could have done. 

Obs. 4. — The comparative degree is used when but 
two objects are compared ; and the superlative, when 
three or more are compared. 

The eldest of her two sons is going to school. The latter of three. 

John is the oldest, but James is the largest, of the two boys. 

Which is the largest number, — the minuend or the subtrahend ? 

Which do you like best, — tea or coffee ? The last of two. 

Which is farthest north, — Chicago or London ? 

Choose the least of two evils. This hurt him worst of any thing else. 

China has the greatest population of any other country on earth. 

Remark. — A word that is not a pure superlative, can sometimes be used in 
speaking of two objects only; as, kk A trochee has the first syllable accented." 
And perhaps the superlative degree can be occasionally applied to one of two 
when we do not refer to inferior objects, but chiefly aim to impress the idea that 
the object is not exceeded. 

Obs. 5. — In comparison ? other, else, or a similar 



SENTENCES. — ARTICLES AND ADJECTIVES. 137 

word, must sometimes be inserted to prevent the lead- 
ing term from being compared with itself. 

That tree overtops all the trees in the forest. 
He thinks he knows more than anybody. 
Nothing is so good for a sprain as cold water. 
There is no situation so good anywhere. 
No magazine is so well written as the Atlantic Monthly. 
Jacob loved Joseph more than all his children. [flood. 

Noah and his family outlived all the people who lived before the 
In no case are writers so apt to err as in the position of the word 
only. — Maunder. 

Obs. 6. — The leading term of a comparison should 
not be compared with itself, nor included in that to 
which it does not belong. 

When the comparative degree is used, the latter term of comparison 
should always exclude the former ; and when the superlative degree is 
used, the latter term of comparison should always include the former. 
But the term construed after the superlative degree, should always ex- 
press plurality ; for if it does not, the leading term is also compared 
with itself. Other, or a similar word, makes two distinct parts, hut com- 
prises them in one general class. 

Youth is the most important period of any in life. 

These people seemed to us the most ignorant of any we had seen. 

Lake Superior is the largest of any lake in the world. 

That boy is the brightest of all his classmates. 

That is a better-furnished room than any in the house. 

That is the best-furnished room of any in the house, [globe; 

China has the greatest population of any nation [country] oi\ the 

This was the thing which of all others I wished most to see. 

Homer had the greatest invention of any writer whatever. — Pope. 

Under Note V. 

The inlet was two mile wide. I bought three ton of hay. 

It weighed five pound. How do you like these kind of chairs ? 

I never could endure those kind of people. These sort of things. 

These sort of fellows are very numerous. Fellows of this, etc. 

This twenty years have I been with thee. — Bible. 

Plumb down he dropped ten thousand fathom deep. — Milton. 

I measured the log with a pole ten foot long, — with a ten-feet pole. 

When a compound adjective consists of a plural numeral and a noun, the 
noun is not made plural. See p. 115. 



138 TEXT COURSE. 

The lot has twenty-five foot front, and is eight rod deep. 
The work embraces every minutiae — all the minutia — of the 
science. [fifth pages. 

Learn the sixth and seventh page, and review the fourth and the 
A winding stairs led us to the Senate Chamber. A flight of, etc. 

VERBS. 

A Verb is a word used to express the act or state of 
a subject. 

Verbs denote action, as, " I walk" " Birds fly," " The leaves are 
driven by the wind; " mere existence, as, " I am" " Time was, but time 
shall be no more ; " states or conditions of existence, as, " The rose 
blooms" " He lies or sits," " The garment Jits; " or merely some identifi- 
cation or explanation, as, " It was the wind," " A hippogriff is sl fabulous 
monster : " and they always present the idea either in the form of a 
direct statement, or in some dependent form that implies a statement. 
Since verbs express only the attributes of objects, though with the ad- 
ditional idea of an assertion or statement expressed or implied, it follows 
that they are but a species of adjectives. 

A verb may be, — 

1. Simple. " She sings." " He wrote a letter." 

2. Complex. " You may sing." " The letter should have been written" 

3. Compound. " The witness was sent for." — Carlyle. 

A simple verb consists of a single word; a complex verb, of a principal 
verb and some smaller helping verb or verbs ; and a compound verb, of a verb 
followed by an inseparable preposition or phrase. It is sometimes necessary 
to regard the foregoing distinction in verbs; though it is not made the basis 
of a formal and full classification. A complex or compound verb is still 
called simply a word, because such a composite form is merely a substitute 
for a varied or compounded form of the principal verb. 

Principal Parts. — A verb has four principal parts, 
which are so called because from them the remaining 
parts are formed. 

1. The Present ; as, go, run, cut, play, plant. 

2. The Past; as, went, ran, cut, played, planted. 

3. The Present Participle ; as, going, running, cutting, playing. 

4. The Perfect Participle ; as, gone, run, played, planted. 

We shall sometimes distinguish these parts as they are here numbered, not 
as they are named. The past, or past tense, is also called the prtt'erit. 

In order to make or distinguish all the different forms of verbs, it is 
necessary to know the four principal parts, which must be learned either 



SENTENCES. — VERBS. 139 

by rule or as individual words. The present, or present tense, is the sim- 
plest form of the present indicative, or of the present infinitive without 
to; the past, or past tense, is the simplest form of the past indicative; 
the present participle always ends with ing, or is formed from the present 
by annexing ing ; and the perfect participle is the form which makes sense 
with having or being immediately before it, as " having gone," " being 
seen." The present participle is not usually given as a word to be 
learned, for its form must be obvious when the present tense is given. 

Classes. 

1. Yerbs are either regular or irregular. 

2. Verbs are either principal or auxiliary. 

3, Verbs are either predicative or unpredicative. 

4, Verbs are either transitive or intransitive. 

It is worthy of notice, that these classifications are attended by peculiar 
changes in the forms of verbs, or in the words affected by the verbs. 

Regular. A regular verb forms its past tense and its 
perfect participle with the ending ed. 

Irregular. An irregular verb does not form its past 
tense and its perfect participle with the ending ed. 

Present plant, past planted, perfect participle planted ; carry, carried, 
earned; rebel, rebelled, rebelled, — are regular verbs: go, went, gone; 
sweep, swept, swept ; and cut, cut, cut, — are irregular verbs. 

Principal. A principal verb is one that expresses by 
itself the act or state, or the principal part of it. 

Auxiliary. An auxiliary verb is one that is used to 
conjugate other verbs. 

In the sentences, " He studies/' " He can study," " He may have 
studied," we call study a principal verb ; while can, may, and have are 
but auxiliary verbs. A verb helps to conjugate another, when it serves 
to express it in the different forms. 

The auxiliary verbs are — 
Be and its variations ; used to express the passive and the progressive 
Do and Did ; used generally for emphasis. [form. 

Have and Had ; used to express the perfect tenses. 
Can and Could; used to express power or possibility. 
May and Might ; used to express possibility, permission, or wishing. 
Must; used to express necessity. 
Shall and Should ; generally used to express compulsion or duty. 



140 TEXT COURSE. 

Will and Would ; generally used to express inclination or tendency. 
Shall and Will also express the future tenses. 

Predicative. A predicative or predicate verb is one 
that predicates the act or state of its subject. 

Unpredicative. An unpredicative verb is one that 
does not predicate the act or state of its subject, but 
usually presents it as something subordinate. 

We are obliged to use the word predicate thus, because there is no other 
word so appropriate. 

The expressions, "John has arrived" "The plant grows" "I am 
alone," contain predicative verbs, and are therefore sentence* ; while the 
expressions "John having arrived" " The plant growing" "For me to 
be alone," contain unpredicative verbs, and are therefore but phrases. 
Unpredicative verbs are divided into two classes, — participles and infini- 
tives. 

Transitive. A transitive verb is a verb that has an 
object, or requires one to complete the sense. 

Intransitive. An intransitive verb is a verb that does 
not have or require an object. 

" In the sentence, " The lightning struck the oak/' struck is a transi- 
tive verb, and oak is the object ; in the sentence, " I knew him well, and 
every truant knew" him is the object of knew, and is also understood 
after the second knew : while in the sentences, " He went" " Birds^," 
" Roses bloom" " Gamblers cheat" " She reads well/' the verbs are in- 
transitive. When an intransitive verb does not imply action or exer- 
tion, it is sometimes called a neuter verb ; as, " The book is here, or it 
lies on the table." Many words can be used either as transitive or as 
intransitive verbs ; as, " The prince succeeds the king ; " " In every un- 
dertaking he succeeds." A verb usually intransitive may become transi- 
tive, when it is used in a causative sense, as, " To march armies ; " 
when the object is like the verb in meaning, as, " To live a righteous 
life ; and in some poetic or reflexive expressions, as, " I laughed \ myself 
hoarse." Some verbs are followed by two objects, one of which is 
governed by a preposition understood ; as, " Give me a book" i.e., a 
book to me ; " She taught me grammar" i.e., grammar to me, or, me in 
grammar. Some verbs are followed by two objects that are in apposi- 
tion ; as, " They made him captain." 

Questions. — What is a Verb? Which are the four principal parts of a 
verb, and why are they so called ? How are verbs classified ? What is a regular 
verb ? — an irregular ? — a principal verb ? — an auxiliary ? — a predicate-verb ? 



SENTENCES. — VERBS. 



141 



— an unpredicative?— -a transitive verb?— an intransitive? For what is the 
auxiliary verb be used ? For what are do and did used ? — have and had ? — can 
and could 1 — may and might ? — shall and should 1 — m'K and would 7 What 
does ffius* express ? 



List of Irregular Verbs. 

The Two Past Forms Different. 



Present. 
Arise, 

Awake, 



Past. 

arose, 



Perf. Participle. 

arisen. 



-°^-ZS 



Be or am, was, 

Bear bore, 

{bring forth), bare, 

bore, 
beat, 



Bear 

(carry)* 

Beat, 

Become, 
Befall, 

Beget, 

Begin, 

Bid, 

Bite, 

Blow, 

Break, 

Chide, 

Choose, 

Cleave 

(adhere), 

Cleave 

(split), 



became, 
befell, 

begot, 

begat,* 

began, 

bid, 

bade, 

bit, 

blew, 

broke, 
brake,* 

chid, 

chose, 

cleaved, 
clave,* 

cleft, 

clove, 

clave,* 



been, 
born, 
borne. 

beaten, 
beat. 

become, 
befallen. 

begotten, 

begot. 

begun. 

bid, 

bidden. 

bitten, 
bit. 

blown. 

broken, 
broke.* 

chidden, 
chid. 

chosen. 

cleaved. 

cleft, 

cloven, 

cleaved. 



Present. 

Come, 
Crow, 
Dare 

(venture), 



Past. 

came, 

crowed, 

crew, 

durst, 
dared, 



Per£ Participle* 

come, 
crowed. 

dared. 



(Dare, to challenge ; regular.) 



Do 

(prin. verb.), 
Draw, 

Drink, 

Drive, 

Eat, 

Fall, 

Fly, 

Forbear, 

Forget, 

Forsake, 
Freeze, 

Freight, 

Get, 

Give, 
Go, 
Grave, 
Grow, 



did, 

drew, 
drank, 

drove, 

ate, 
eat, 

fell, 

flew, 

forbore, 

forgot, 

forsook, 
froze, 

freighted, 

got, 

gave, 
went, 
graved, 
grew, 



done. 

drawn, 
drunk, 
drank.* 

driven. 

eaten, 
eat.* 

fallen. 

flown. 

forborne. 

forgotten, 
forgot. 

forsaken, 
frozen. 

freighted, 
fraught. 

got, 
gotten. 

given. 

gone. 

graven, 

grown. 



R. 



The pupil may also mention the present participle just before he mentions 
the perfect. R. denotes that the word has the regular form too, which may also 
he used in stead of the other. A star (*) denotes that the form under it is seldom 
used, being either ancient, poetic, or of late introduction. The form supposed 
to be of the best present usage, is placed first. The second form of some verbs 
is preferable when applied in a certain way; as, " freighted with spices and 
silks," u fraught with mischief;" " thundersZrwc/j," " sorrow-stricken." — Com- 
mit to memory the unmarked forms only. 



142 



TEXT COURSE. 



Present. Pa6t. Per£ Participle. 

tt heaved, heaved, 

±leave> hove, hoven* 



Hew, 

Hide, 



hewed, hewn, R. 

hidden, 
hid. 

Hold, held, JJ3^. 

Know, knew, known. 
Lade (load), laded, laden, R. 
Lie (repose), lay, lain. 

(Lie, to speak falsely ; regular.) 
Mow, mowed, mown, R. 

Prove, proved, g£™*> 



Rend, 
Ride, 



rent, 
rode, 



rent, R.* 

rode, 
ridden. 



risen, 
riven, R.* 
run. 



Ring, ran & 

° 9 rung, 

Rise, rose, 

Rive, rived, 

Run, ran, 

Saw, sawed, sawn, R. 

See, saw, seen. 

o , seethed, seethed, 

seetne, god * sodden. 

Shake, shook, shaken. 

Shape, shaped, sha P ed > 

1 ' l ' shapen.* 

Shave, shaved, j™^ 

Shear > shoref*' shorn > R - 

Show, showed, shown, R. 

Shrink shrunk, shrunk, 

7 shrank, shrunken. 

Slay, slew, slain. 

Slide, slid.IL, -j*£ 

.. . smitten, 

Smite, smote, it * 



Present 
Sing, 

Sink, 



sunk. 



Past. Per£ Participle. 

sung, 

° sun^. 

sang, ° 

sunk, 

sank, 

Sow sowed, sown, R. 

(to scatter seed), 

S P eak > spake'* s P° ken - 



spun, 



G . spun, 

b P in > span* 

Q .* spit, spit, 

^P u > spat* spitten.* 
(Spit, to pierce with a spit ; regular.) 

SF-g, y-l "™* 

Steal, stole, stolen. 

,„, ., strode, stridden, 

btnde ' strid, strid. 

Strike, struck, ^^ 

Strive, strove,R.,*striven,R.* 

Strow, strowed, strown, R. 

Strew, strewed, strewn, R. 

swore, 

Swear, ' *. sworn, 

sware,* 

Swell 
Swim 



, swelled, swollen, R, 
swam, 



swum. 



swum. 



Take, took, taken. 

Tear, tore, torn. 

rr, . thrived, thrived, 

Thnve > throve, thriven. 

Throw, threw, thrown. 

TV>*r1 trod > trodden, 

lreaa > trade,* trod. 

Wax (srrwVnraxed, waxen'.* 

Wear, wore, worn. 

Weave, wove, R.,* woven, R.* 

Write wrote ' written > 

write, mit# writ< - 



SENTENCES. — VERBS. 



143 



The Two Past or the Three Forms Alike. 



Present. 


Past. Perf. Participle. 


Present. 


Past. Perf. Participle 


Abide, 


abode, 


abode. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


Behold, 


beheld, 


beheld. 


Find, 


found, 


found. 


Belay, 


belaid, R 


, belaid, R. 


Flee, 


fled, 


fled. 


Bend, 


bent, R., 


bent, R. 


Fling, 


flung, 


flung. 


Bereave, 


bereft, R 


, bereft, R. 


Gild 


gilded, 


gilded, 


Beseech, 


besought,E 


,. besought, R. 


\_J 11UL, 


gilt, 


gilt. 


Bet, 


bet, R., 


bet, R. 


Gird, 


girt, R., 


girt, R. 


Betide, 


betided, 


betided, 


Grind, 


ground, 


ground. 


betid,* 


betid.* 


Hang, 


hung, R., 


hung, R. a 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


Have, 


had, 


had. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


(prin. verb.), 




Blend, 


blended, 


blended, 


Hear, 


heard, 


heard. 


blent,* 


blent.* 


Hit, 


hit, 


hit. 


T^IPQQ 


blessed, 


blessed, 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt. 


XJlCoo, 


blest, 


blest. 


Keep, 


kept, 


kept. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Kneel, 


knelt, R., 


knelt, R. 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


Knit, 


knit, R., 


knit, R. 


Build, 


built, R. * built, R .* 


Lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


Burn. 


burned, 


burned, 


Lead, 


led, 


led. 


Burst, 


burnt, 
burst, 


burnt, 
burst. 


Lean, 


leaned, 
leant, 


leaned, 
leant. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Leap, 


leaped, 


leaped, 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


leapt,* 


leapt.* 


Catch, 


caught,R.,- 


* caught, R.* 


Learn, 


learned, 


learned, 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


learnt, 


learnt. 


Clothe, 


clothed, 


clothed, 


Leave, 


left, 


left. 


clad, 


clad. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lent. 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


Let, 


let, 


let. 


Creep, 


crept, 


crept. 


Lio-hr 


lighted, 


lighted, 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


l^igUt, 


lit, 


lit. 


Deal, 


dealt, 


dealt. 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


Dig, 


dug, R., 


dug, R. 


Make, 


made, 


made. 


Dwell, 


dwelt, R., 


dwelt, R. 


Mean, 


meant, 


meant. 


Dream, 


dreamed, 


dreamed, 


Meet, 


met, 


met. 


dreamt, 


dreamt. 


Pass 


passed, 


passed, 


l)rp«!Q 


dressed, 


dressed, 




past,* 


past. b 


JL/l COO, 


drest,* 


drest.* 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Feed, 


fed, 


fed. 


Pen, 


penned, 


penned, 


Feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


{fence in), 


pent, 


pent. 



(a.) Hang, hanged, hanged ; to suspend by the neck with intent to Mil .« but 
the distinction is not always observed. (&.) Past may be an adjective or a noun. 



144 




TEXT COURSE. 






Present. 


Past. Perf. Participle. 


Present. 


Past. Perf. Participle. 


(Pen, to write ; regular.) 


Stave, 


stove, R., 


stove, R. 




pleaded, 


pleaded, 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Plead, 


plead,* 


plead,* 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 




pled,* 


pled.* 


Sting, 


stung, 


stung. 


Put, 


put, 


put. 


Sweat, 


sweat, R. 


sweat, R. 


Quit, 


quit, R., 


quit, R. 


swet, 


swet. 


Rap, 


rapped, 
rapt, 


rapped, 
rapt. 


Sweep, 
Swing, 


swept, 
swung, 


swept, 
swung. 


Read, 


read, 


read. 


Teach, 


O 7 

taught, 


taught. 


Reave,* 


reft, 


reft. 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 


Rid, 


rid, 


rid. 


Think, 


thought, 


thought. 


Say, 


said, 


said. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


Seek, 


sought, 


sought. 


Wake, 


waked, 


waked, 


Sell, 


sold, 


sold. 


woke,* 


woke.* 


Send, 


sent, 


sent. 


Wed, 


wedded, 


wedded, 


Set, 


set, 


set. 


wed,* 


wed.* 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


Weep, 


wept, 


wept. 


Shine, 


shone, R.,* shone, R.* 


Wet, 


wet, R.,* 


wet, R.* 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 


Win, 


won, 


won. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


Wind, 


wound, 


wound. 


Shred, 
Shut, 


shred, 
shut, 


shred, 
shut. 


Work, 


worked, 
wrought, 


worked, 
wrought. 


Sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


Wring, 


wrung, 


wrung. 


sate,* 


Beware, 


(wanting,) (wanting.) 


Sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


Can, 


could, 


it 


Sling, 


slung, 


slung. 


Do (auxil'y), did, 


It 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slunk. 


Have, " 


had, 


a 


Slit, 


slit, R.,* 


slit, R. 


May, 


might, 


tc 


Smell, 


smelt, R. 


, smelt, R. 


Must, 


must, 


a 


Speed, 


sped, R.," 


* sped, R.* 


Ought, 


ought, 


it 


Spell, 


spelled, 


spelled, 


(wanting,*) quoth, 


it 


spelt, 


spelt. 


Shall, ' 


should, 


u 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent. 


Will (auxil'y), would, 


u . 


Spill, 


spilt, R., 


spilt, R. 


(Will, wish, bequeath; 


regular.) 


Split, 


split, R.,* split, R * 


Wit, 1 


wot,* 


) 


Spoil, 


spoiled, 
spoilt,* 


spoiled, 
spoilt.* 


Wot* 
Wis,* 
Weet,*j 


wist,* 
wote.* 


i 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 






Stay, 


staid, R., 


staid, R. d 


Most ( 


}f the verbs that have n< 


String, 


strung, 


strung, R. e 


participl 


es, are auxiliary verbs. 



(c.) Rap, rapt, rapt; to seize with rapture, (d.) Stay, stayed, stayed; to 
cause to stop, (e.) Stringed instruments. 



SENTENCES. — VERBS. 145 

General Remarks. — A few verbs we have omitted, because they 
may now be considered regular, or the irregular forms occur but very 
seldom ; as, help, holp, holpen ; climb, past do nib ; load, perf. part, loaden. 
A few participles we have omitted, because they are now used only as 
, adjectives ; as, rotten from rot, drunken from drink, and shotten from shoot. 
An irregular verb that has more than one form for some of its principal 
parts, is called redundant : as, kneel ; knelt, kneeled ; knelt, kneeled. 
An irregular verb that has not all the parts which belong to a complete 
verb, is called defective* The defective verbs, besides most of the 
auxiliaries, are beware, methinks, ought, quoth, wit, and worth. Beware, 
from be and ware (wary), has no participles. Methinks, I think; me- 
thought, I thought; maseems, to me it seems; meseemed, to me it 
seemed, — are anomalous and poetical. Ought is an old past tense of 
owe; but it is now in the present tense when it is followed by the present 
infinitive, and in the past tense when followed by the past infinitive ; as, 
" I ought to go ; " "I ought to have gone." Quoth is sometimes used, in 
quaint or humorous language, for said; as, "Not I, quoth Sancho." 
Wit, in the sense of know, is yet used in the phrase to wit — namely ; but 
the other forms are nearly obsolete. Worth is an old imperative of the 
verb be, — the was or were branch of it, — and is now used in but two or 
three expressions; as, " Woe worth the day," i.e., woe be to the day. 
To these verbs may be added wont, to dwell, to be accustomed, which is 
now used only in the passive voice, and is then usually parsed simply as 
an adjective. It is worthy of notice, that most of the irregular verbs, 
though exceedingly various in their forms, are inflected simply by vowel 
change; as, come, came: and that many of the forms are, apparently, 
regular ones that have been shortened ; as, keep, kept ; weep, wept. A 
derived verb forms its principal parts like the primitive verb ; as, take, 
took, taken, — mistake, mistook, mistaken. See p. 124. 



Properties of Verbs. 
Changes. 

Verbs have voices, moods, tenses, persons, and num- 
bers. 

We study grammar chiefly to learn the varieties of form in words and sen- 
tences. And since both classifications and properties are attended by changes 
in the forms of verbs, this may cause some perplexity to the learner. In general, 
a group of properties produce all their changes on the same words, while a 
classification divides the words themselves. 

The Voices are two modes of using transitive verbs, 
according as the doer or the object is made the subject. 
10 



146 TEXT COURSE. 

The voices are the active and the passive. 
The Active Voice represents the subject as acting. 
The Passive Voice represents the subject as acted 
upon. 

In the sentence, " He caught the fish," caught is in the active voice ; 
but in the sentence, " The fish was caught by him/' was caught is in the 
passive voice. A few verbs — as resemble, own, have — may not imply 
action ; but they are still transitive, for they follow the form and con- 
struction of the active transitive verbs. 

The Passive Form consists of the verb be, or some 
variation of it, combined with a perfect participle. 

Ex. — The pitcher is broken." " It was to be sent home." 
A fow intransitive verbs are sometimes used in the passive form, 
without being in the passive voice ; as, " The melancholy days are 
come" — Bryant. And sometimes an active form is used in the pas- 
sive voice; as, " The fortress was building" (Irving) : also, " The lines 
read smoothly " (Blair), "Linen washes well" (Brande); but these 
two verbs, and others like them, may as well be parsed simply as intran- 
sitive. 

The Moods are the chief modes of predicating. 

The Moods are different forms of the verb, that show 
the principal ways of expressing and developing the 
act or state with reference to its subject. 

"Principal ways of expressing and developing," etc. — the great difficulty 
about the moods is, that they denote several different things. If the language is 
allowable, we would say, Moods express kinds and degrees of predication, 
reality, and dependence. , 

There are really, at the outset, but two great moods, — the predi- 
cative and the unpredicative. The predicative branch naturally divides 
itself into indicative^ subjunctive, potential, and imperative ; and the un- 
predicative, into participial and infinitive. In teaching, however, it is 
found most convenient to confine the word mood to the first and principal 
branch only, and to call the two parts of the unpredicative verb simply 
the participle and the infinitive. Hence — 

There are four moods, the indicative, the subjunc- 
tive, the potential, and the imperative.. 

1. The Indicative Hood predicates what is matter of 
fact. 

2. The Subjunctive Mood predicates what is mere 
supposition, conclusion, or contingency. 



SENTENCES. — VERBS. 147 

3, The Potential Mood predicates some common re- 
lation of the subject to the act or state. 

4. The Imperative Mood predicates the wish of the 
speaker as something to be done or accepted by the 
person addressed. 

"1 study" is indicative, because it expresses an actual occurrence; 
" If he studies" is also indicative, because the studying is assumed as a 
matter of fact; " If I were studying" is subjunctive, because it expresses 
a mere supposition ; " If he study" is also subjunctive, because it ex- 
presses a supposition and contingency — something that may or may not 
take place ; " I can study" " I must study" " I should study" are poten- 
tial, because they merely assert my relation to the act ; " Study " is 
imperative, because it is addressed to some one as something to be done 
by him. The subjunctive mood is found most frequently after if though, 
lest, or a similar word that implies doubt; and the verb, when not 
future, nearly always implies a denial of the act or state. This mood 
is called subjunctive because it is generally found in connection with 
another clause on which its own clause depends. The potential 
mood expresses power, possibility, liberty or permission, inclination, 
duty, necessity, or wishing. Its signs are may, can, must, migld, could, 
would, and should. The imperative mood expresses command, entreaty, 
exhortation, or permission. We command inferiors, entreat superiors, 
exhort equals, and permit in compliance with the wishes of others. Oc- 
casionally, this mood is used in the first or third person ; as, " ' And 
rest we here/ Matilda said" (Scott); "Somebody call my wife" 
(Shak.); "£eitso" (Webster). 

The indicative and the potential mood can be used 
interrogatively. 

Ex. — " He limps.' 1 " Does he limp f " "He can read." " Can he read ? " 

The moods branch out into tenses. 

The Tenses are different forms of the verb, to show- 
distinctions in time. 

There are six tenses : the present, the present-per- 
fect; the past, the past-perfect; the future, and the 
future-perfect. 

The present, past, and future are sometimes called absolute tenses ; and the 
others, relative. 

Time is naturally divided into present, past, and future. In each of 

these periods we may consider an act or state as simply in being, or else 

as completed or ended. Present time, though strictly but an instant, is 



148 TEXT COURSE. 

frequently regarded in language as a day, a month, a year, a lifetime, a 
century ; or even as the entire extent of duration called Time, which is 
the lifetime of the world as it now exists. This fact accounts for most 
of the secondary uses of the present tense, and for some apparent 
anomalies in the other tenses. 

The indicative mood has six tenses ; two present, two 
past, and two future. 

The subjunctive mood has three tenses ; equivalent to a 
present, a past, and a future. 

In sense, this mood can have no perfect tenses, for every completed act must 
be assumed as matter of fact; and therefore the antiquated perfect tenses of this 
mood have been superseded by the corresponding indicative tenses, or by the 
indicative mood itself. Hence we now say, "If he has written;" not, "If he 
have written ." 

The potential mood has four tenses, — two present and 
two past. 

The imperative mood has but one tense, — the present. 
1. The Present Tenses denote simply present time. 
3. The Past Tenses denote simply past time. 

3. The Future Tense denotes simply future time. 

4. The Perfect Tenses denote completion in the time 
to which they belong. 

Present : " I tcrite ; " " I can write ; " M Write ; " " If it is raining. 11 
Pasts " I wrote ; " "I could not write ; " " If he ivas at home." 
Future s " I shall write ; " " It will be done ; " " Shall I be forgotten ? " 
Perfect S " I have written ; " " I had written ; " "I shall have written ; " u He 
may have gone ; " "He could have gone. 11 

The definitions of the Tenses, on p. 40, may also he used in parsing; hut the 
present exposition of the Tenses, though brief, will suffice, with a little judicious 
modification. In parsing the perfect tenses, the pupil may use such phrases as 
" completed by a certain future time," " completed at the present time," " com- 
pleted at a certain past time ; " and sometimes the word " ended " will be more 
appropriate than " completed." 

Exceptions and Secondary Uses. 

Sometimes a tense, especially the present, represents an act or 
state as a habit, custom, or unchangeable truth. 

Ex. — " He chews tobacco." (Present habit. ) " People go to church on 
Sunday." (Present custom.) "There icould she sit and iceep for hours." 
(Past habit.) "The steer and lion at one crib shall meet; 11 i.e., it will be 
customary. "Heat melts snow;" i.e., from the very nature of things. 
" Virtue produces happiness." 

Sometimes the present tense is used to express a past or future 
transaction more vividly. 

Ex. — " On Linden, when the sun was low, ... the combat deepens. On, 



SENTENCES. — VERBS. 149 

ye brave!" (Read Campbell's Hohenlinden to your class.) "The Guard 
never surrenders: it dies!' 1 '' i.e., will never, etc. 

The characteristics of authors, when we refer to their works, are also 
usually expressed in the present tense; as, "Seneca reasons and moralizes 
well," i.e., there is good reasoning in his book. This use of the present tense 
rests simply on a metonymy ; though it may be referred to both of the prin- 
ciples just given. 

A tense employed to denote an ideal act or state, usually moves 

forward in time, to distinguish mere conception from matter of fact. 

Such tenses move forward to shut off the idea of reality; since we can not 
now, for instance, do a past act. 

1. The Present Subjunctive denotes future time. 

2. The Past Subjunctive is present or indefinite in time. 

3. The Past-Perfect Subjunctive denotes simply past time. 

4. The Past Potential, when used ideally, is present or indefi- 
nite in time. 

5. The Present Potentials sometimes denote future time. 

That is, may, can, and must, as well as shall and will, sometimes ex- 
press futurity. 

6. The Present Imperative is present in the period of time to 
which it belongs. 

7. Sometimes when, till, before, as soon as, whoever, whatever, or 
a similar term, carries the present or the present-perfect tense into 
future time. 

8. Since the perfect passive participle generally implies com- 
pletion, a passive verb in the absolute tenses is frequently equiva- 
lent in time to the corresponding relative tenses of the active voice. 

Illustrations and Remarks. — 1. " If he be at home, I shall speak to 
him; " " If I send for him, will he come? " Present in form, but future in 
time. 2. "If he were at home, I would speak to him." Past in form, but 
present in time. Sometimes the past subjunctive may be more appropriately 
called the indefinite subjunctive. 3. " Had he been at home, I would have 
spoken to him." Past-perfect in form, but simply past in time. The three 
tenses just given are sufficient, yet. needed, for all the purposes of the sub- 
junctive mood. Other grammarians give this mood either six tenses or but 
two. Those who admit but two, reject the past-perfect tense. But this tense 
is subjunctive, not indicative, in time, for it means at, not before, a certain 
point of past time; and it is furthermore subjunctive in origin, and subjunc- 
tive in syntax. 4. " I should think you might risk it; " i.e., now or hereafter. 
This sentence implies supposition and conclusion, or is partially subjunc- 
tive. In most cases, it is in reality subjunctive sense that moves forward the 
tenses of the potential mood, or disorders them in time. The subjunctive 
mood has been partially absorbed by the conjunctions if, though, unless, etc., 
and by the auxiliaries of the potential mood; or the lighter shades of the 
subjunctive mood are thus expressed, just as in modern languages the vari- 
ous cases of ancient languages are expressed chiefly by means of preposi- 
tions. 5. "I can pay you next Christmas;" " By that time he may have 
gone ahead of you." 6. 4 * I said to him, Go; and he went." The impera- 
tive mood has really nothing to do with time, or is tenseless. It merely has 
the form of the present tense. 7. im When he comes, I shall go." " When he 



150 TEXT COURSE. 

has finished the work, I shall pay him." 8. "My rose-bush is destroyed;''' 
" Some one has destroyed my rose-bush." " The coat will then be finished; " 
" The tailor will then have finished the coat." 

Sometimes a tense is used to deny the same act or state of the subject in 
a neighboring tense; as, " He has been rich," may be used to suggest that he 
is not so now. 

Styles. — The tenses are expressed in two styles, — 
the common or familiar and the solemn. 

1. The Common Style is that which is now in 
fashion, or is mostly used. 

2. The Solemn Style is the old or antiquated style, 
which is still retained chiefly in the Bible, in worship, 
and in poetry. 

The solemn style has thou and ye in stead of you, 
and the verb-ending ih in stead of s. 

Forms. — In each of these styles, the tenses have 
three forms, — the simple, emphatic, and progressive. 

The simple form is the simplest form of the tense ; the 
emphatic form expresses emphasis with do or did; and 
the progressive form represents the act as in progress. 

The Progressive Form consists of the verb be, or 
some variation of it, combined with the present par- 
ticiple. 

See p. 40. It is not necessary, in parsing, to mention the simple form of the 
common style, nor even the common style; for these are always implied, unless 
a different style or form is expressly mentioned. But the solemn style, the em- 
phatic form, and the progressive form, should be mentioned in connection with 
the tense. There is also a passive form ; yet this is sufficiently recognized un- 
der Voices, and sometimes it is itself progressive — so that it can not strictly be 
classified with the progressive form. When, however, such forms as are come, 
is gone, is fallen, etc., occur, the pupil should recognize the peculiarity in con- 
nection with the tense, by simply stating that the tense is in the passive form. 

Interrogative. A proposition is made interrogative, generally 
by placing the verb, or some part of it, before the subject ; as, 
" Know ye the land ? " " Have you seen him ? " 

Negative. A proposition is made negative, by placing not after 
the verb or after the first auxiliary ; as, " I know not why it could 
not have been done." A participle or an infinitive is expressed 
negatively, generally by placing not before it; as, " Not to know 
some things is an honor ; " " Not hearing of him, we returned." 

Persons and Numbers. — The different forms of the 
tenses branch out into persons and numbers. 



SENTENCES. — VERBS. 151 

The Person and Number of a verb are its form to 
suit the person and number of its subject. 

Verbs have, like their subjects, three persons and 
two numbers. 

Illustration and Remarks. — Singular — I am, thou art, he is; 
plural — we are, you are, they are. Here it is obvious that the verb 
varies in form as the subject varies in person and number; but there are not 
so many different forms as there are shades of meaning. Let the pupil ever 
remember, that language has more ideas than words, and more shades of 
meaning than different forms of words ; hence the same word or form fre- 
quently has several meanings or uses. In Voices, we have two bold varie- 
ties of form; in Moods, we have also different forms, but made chiefly by 
means of auxiliary verbs; in Tenses, we have great variety of form, made 
partly by variations in the word and partly by the help of auxiliaries, but 
these different forms are not so numerous as the shades of meaning; in Per- 
son and Number, we have many shades of meaning, or different applications, 
but scarcely any changes of form. The verb is already exhausted in its 
capacity to yield different forms ; so that we rather depend on the person 
and number of the subject, or on the general sense, to guide us to the verb. 

I, thou, you, he, she, it, ive, and they, either are the 
subjects of predicate-verbs, or they can represent all 
other subjects in person and number. 

Thou, except in the imperative mood, generally re- 
quires the verb, or the first auxiliary, to end with est, 
st, or t. 

" Thou knowest that thou didst the deed." " Thou art the man." 

He, she, or it requires that the verb, in the present 
indicative, shall end with s or es, th or eth. 

Ex. — He has, or hath. She teaches, or teache^. 

Exception* — The verb ought, which is never varied, is the only exception. 

In the plural number, the verb has the same form 
for all the persons. 

Ex. — We write. You write. They write. 

;6®=What else belongs to this general subject, is more appropriately pre- 
sented under Relations. 

Participles and Infinitives. 

The unpredicative branch of the verb consists of 
participles and infinitives. 

A Participle is an unpredicative inflected form of 
the verb, that partakes of the nature of an adjective 
or a noun. 



152 TEXT COURSE. 

Aii Infinitive is an unpredicative form of the verb, 
usually beginning with to, and generally used in the 
sense of a noun or dependent clause. 

If I say, " The rippling brook," rippling is a form of the verb ripple , 

and describes like an adjective the brook ; if I say, " The rippling of the 

brook," I present the rippling as a distinct object of thought ; if I say, 

" To study is a pleasure," I speak of to study as being something ; and 

if I say, " He has come to study" to study is equivalent to a secondary 

or dependent statement ; for the sentence means, " He has come that he 

may study." 

The Infinitive should rather be called Gerund ; for it is the simplest abstract 
form of the verb, that carries, or conveys to the mind, the general notion of tho 
verb. 

Participles and infinitives are derived from, — 
1* Regular verbs ; as, planting and planted, to plant and to have planted, 

from plant. 
2. Irregular verbs ; as, going and gone, to go and to have gone, from go. 

Participles and infinitives may be, like predicate-verbs, — 

1. Transitive. " She likes to watch her ducks eating corn." 

2. Intransitive. " The sun having risen, we determined to start." 

1. Active. " I saw the man planting a tree." 

2. Passive. " I saw the tree planted by the man." . 

1. Present: as, loving, being loved; to love, to be loved. [cut. 

2. Perfect: as, cut, having cut, having been cut; to have cut, to have been 

1. Simple : as, being, been, to be ; planting, planted, to plant. 

2. Complex : as, having been, being planted, having planted, having been 

planted ; to have planted, to have been planted. 

3. Compound. " Worth fighting for ;" "ought to be sent for." 

The characteristics of participles and infinitives deserve further notice, 
especially where somewhat different from those of predicate-verbs. It is 
neither necessary nor customary to distinguish infinitives as simple and com- 
plex; but the distinction between simple and complex participles is usually 
recognized. 

There are two participles and two infinitives, — the 
present and the perfect. The two participles may be 
also complex. 

The Present Participle denotes simply the act or 
state, or continuance of it. 

The Present Infinitive denotes simply the act or 
state, or as something future. 

The Perfect Participle or Infinitive denotes comple- 
tion of the act or state. 



SENTENCES. — VERBS. 153 

The present participle ends with ing, or begins with 
being. 

The perfect participle ends with ed, or begins with 
having. It may also be an irregular form, given in 
the list of irregular verbs. 

The present infinitive begins with to; the perfect, 
with to have. 

A simple participle consists of a single word. 

A complex participle consists of two or more parti- 
ciples combined ; or it is usually a simple perfect par- 
ticiple, preceded by the auxiliary participle being, 
having, or having been, 

The auxiliary participles being, having, or having been, are used 
to express voice, to express time, or to show better the participial 
nature of the verb. 

Hence we find, in the use of transitive verbs, Jive common participial 
forms : the simple present active participle, as writing ; the complex 
present passive participle, as being written; the simple perfect participle, 
* which is either active or passive, but only active when combined with 
the auxiliary have, as written ; the complex perfect active participle, as 
having written ; and the complex perfect passive participle, as having been 
written : the last two forms have also been called the jjreperfect partici- 
ple. And in the use of intransitive verbs, we find three common parti- 
cipial forms ; as, rising, risen, having risen. 

Questions. — What properties have verbs ? What are voices, in grammar ? 
How many are there, and what are they called ? What is the active voice ? — 
the passive ? How is a verb expressed in the passive form, or how is this form 
made ? What are moods ? How many moods are there, and what are they 
called? What is said of the indicative mood? — the subjunctive? — the poten- 
tial ? — the imperative ? Which moods can be used interrogatively ? What are 
tenses? How many tenses are there, and what are they called? How many 
has the indicative mood? — the subjunctive? — the potential? — the imperative? 
What is said of the present tenses? — the past? — the perfect? — the future 
tense ? What three exceptions, or secondary uses, are mentioned ? What is 
said of the subjunctive tenses? — the potential tenses? — of when, till, as soon 
as, etc.? Into what do the moods branch out? — the tenses? — the different 
forms of the tenses? What is said of the styles? — of the forms? Of what 
does the progressive form consist, or how is it made? How is a proposition 
made interrogative ? — how, negative ? What is meant by the person and num- 
ber of a verb ? How many persons and numbers have verbs ? What is said of 
I, thou, he, etc. ? — of thou ? How must the verb end in the third person of the 
present indicative ? What is said of the forms of the verb in the plural number ? 
Of what two kinds of expressions does the unpredicative branch of the verb 
consist ? What is a participle ? — an infinitive ? In what respects do participles 
and infinitives agree with predicate-verbs ? How many and what participles ? — 
infinitives? Define each. How may the participles be known? — the infini- 
tives ? What is a simple participle ? — a complex ? For what are the auxiliary 
participles used ? 



154 TEXT COURSE. 

Conjugation and Synopsis. 

The Conjugation of a verb is the proper combination 
and arrangement of its parts in their full order. 

" In their full order," — that is, in all the persons and numbers of each mood, 
tense, etc. Conjugation literally means the yoking of the verb to its auxiliaries, 
and then of the entire verb to the different nominatives. Conjugation embraces 
all the persons and numbers; synopsis, only one person and number. 

The irregular verb be has the following principal parts, — present be 

or am, past was, present participle being, perfect participle been; and it 

is conjugated thus through the present tense of the indicative mood : — 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Person. I am, 1. We are, 

2d Person. You are, 2. You are, 

3d Person. He, she, or it is ; 3. They are. 

Formerly, be was used in stead of am, are, is, etc. 

A Synopsis of a verb is only an outline of it, which 
shows its parts in a single person and number, through 
the moods and tenses. 

Synopsis of write with I, through the indicative mood : — 
Present, / write. Present-Perfect* / have written. + 

Past, / wrote. Past-Perfect, I had written. 

Future^ / shall write. Future-Perfect, / shall have written. 

Conjugation of the Auxiliary Verbs. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. £SbS5£] 

1. I am, have, do, will, shall, may, can, must, row, 

2. You are, have, do, will, shall, may, can, must, row, 

3. He is ; has ; does ; will ; shall ; may ; can ; must ; rows ; 

Plural. 

1. We are, have, do, will, shall, may, can, must, row, 

2. You are, have, do, will, shall, may, can, must, row, 

3. They are. have. do. will, shall, may. can. must. row. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. 

1. I was, had, did, would, should, might, could, must, rowed, 

2. You were, had, did, would, should, might, could, must, rowed, 

3. He was ; had ; did ; would ; should ; might ; could ; must ; rowed ; 



SENTENCES. — VERBS. 155 

Plural. 

1. "We were, had, did, would, should, might, could, must, rowed, 

2. You were, had, did, would, should, might, could, must, rowed, 

3. They were. had. did. would, should, might, could, must, rowed. 

Forms for Thou. 

Present : Thou art, hast, dost, wilt, shalt, mayst, canst, must, rowest. 

Past : Thou wast or wert, hadst, didst, wouldst, shouldst, mightst, couldst, 

rowedst. 

English grammars usually give a long detail of conjugation, after the fashion 
of Latin and Greek grammars. But our language is much more simple, and can 
he managed by a shorter and easier method. Besides, I have frequently noticed 
that these long conjugations, rehearsed so often and so tediously, put the minds 
of children into a chronic state of routine; so that, after all, many pupils can- 
not find what they want unless they go back to the beginning, and rehearse the 
entire paradigm in the routine order. In my Elementary Grammar, published 
about ten years ago, I presented a brief scheme of constructing the tenses, and 
I now present again that method in an improved form. 

1. From the auxiliaries, and the principal parts of a 
verb, all its remaining parts can be easily formed. 

2. The perfect tenses are formed with have. 

3. The future tenses are formed with shall or will. 

4. The emphatic tenses are formed with do and did. 

5. The progressive and passive forms are made with 
be, or haje the verb be for their basis. 

0. The auxiliaries have and be take the simple parti- 
ciples : have, the perfect ; and be, the present or perfect. 

7. All other auxiliaries take the first form of the 
verb, or the infinitive without to. 

8. Mood auxiliaries come first, then tense auxilia- 
ries, and then voice auxiliaries. 

Ex. — " The letter may have been written/' 

Indicative Mood, 
Tenses, 

Signs: do, did, have, had, will, and shall. 

Present. First form of the verb, or do and the first form. 

I am. I row. Emph., I do row. Prog., I am rowing. Pass., I am rowed. 

Now conjugate each; as, Sing., 1. lam, 2. You are, 3. He is; plur., I. We are. 
2. You are, 3. They are. (The conjugation of the auxiliaries, as already given, will 
be a sufficient guide. The progressive form always consists of the present participle 
annexed to the corresponding tense of the verb be ; and the passive form, of the sim- 
ple perfect participle annexed to the same. See pp. 14b" and 150.) 

f^r* We have here presented the verb be, and then the leading parts of a full 
common verb. Let the pupil not only mention the parts in the same order; but 
conjugate each throughout all thepersons and numbers, according to the conju- 



156 TEXT COURSE. 

gation of the auxiliary verbs. He should also form the progressive and passive 
forms from the simple forms, according to the directions on p. 198. Dwell long 
enough on each tense to teach it thoroughly; and to do this, let other members 
of the class give in like manner the synopsis of love, ride, lift, permit, carry, 
strike, teach, conquer, represent, see f go, stand, etc., and then let the class con- 
jugate each form. Proceed in the same way with each of the following tenses; 
and vary the exercises to make them as instructive and entertaining as possible. 

Present-Perfect. Have and the perfect participle. 

I have been. I have rowed. I have been rowing. I have been rowed. 
Past. Second form of the verb, or did and the first form. 
I was. I rowed. I did row. I was rowing. I was rowed. 
Past-Perfect. Had (past of have), and the perfect participle. 
I had been. I had rowed. I had been rowing. I had been rowed. 
Future. Shall or will, and the first form of the verb. 
I shall have been. I shall have rowed. I shall have been rowing. I shall have 

been rowed. 
Simple futurity, or foretelling : T shall, you will, he will ; we shall, you 
will, they will. Promise, threat, or determination : I will, you shall t 
he shall ; we will, you shall, they shall. The foregoing distinction is the 
same in both the future tenses. 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Signs : were in stead of was, be in stead of am, and no changes. 
In other respects, the tenses are like those of the indicative mood. 

Tenses. 

Present. First form of the verb, or do and the first form. 

If I be. If I row. If I do row. If I be rowing. If I be rowed. 
Past. Second form of the "verb, or did and the first form. 

If I were. If I rowed. If I did row. If I were rowing. If I were rowed. 
Or : Were I. Did I row. Were I rowing. Were I rowed. 

Past-Perfect. Had (past of have), and the perfect participle. 

If I had been. If I had rowed. If I had been rowing. If I had been roived. 

Had I been. Had I rowed. Had I been rowing. Had I been rowed. 

In the subjunctive mood, the past-perfect tense, and the past tenses of the 
verb be, are often used without the conjunction, by simply placing had or were 
before the subject. 

Potential Mood. 

Signs : may, can, must, might, could, would, and should. 

Tenses. 

Present. May, can, or must, and the first form of the verb. 

I may be. I may row. I may be rowing. I may be rowed. 

In like manner, let can and must be used in stead of may. 
Present-Perfect. Present potential of have, with the perfect parti- 
ciple, [been rowed. 

I may have been. I may have roived. I may have been rowing. I may have 



SENTENCES. — VERBS. 157 

Past. Might, could, tcould, or should, (past of mag, can, will, or 
shall,) and the first form of the verb. 

I might be. I might row. I might be rowing. I might be rowed. 
Past-Perfect. Past potential of have, with the perfect participle. 

I might have been. I might have rowed. I might have been rowing. I might 
have been rowed. 

Imperative Mood. 

Present Tense. Same as the indicative present ; except be in stead 
of am, and no changes of form. 
Ex. — Be. Row. Do row. Be rowing. Be rowed. 

Participles and Infinitives, 
Participles. 

Simple Present. 4 nn ex ing to the first form of the verb. 
Complex Present. Being, and the simple perfect participle. 
Simple Perfect. Ed to the first form of the verb, or else irregular. 
Complex Perfect. Having, and the simple perfect participle. 

Ex. — Being, been, having been. Active : Eow/t?^, having rowed, having 
been rowing. Passive : Rowec?, being rowed, having been rowed. P. 194. 

Infinitives. 

Present. To, and the first form of the verb. 

Perfect. Present infinitive of have, with the perfect participle. 

Ex. — To be, to have been. Present: To row, to be rowing, to be 
rowed. Perfect : To have rowed, to have been rowing, to have been rowed. 
Active : To row, to have rowed. Passive : To be rowed, to have been 
rowed. 

Synopsis of the verbs be and row, with Thou. 

Indicative Hood. 
Tenses. 

Present. Thou art. Thou rowest or dost row. 
Present-Perfect. Thou hast been. Thou hast rowed. 
Past. Thou wast, or wert. Thou rowedst or didst row. 
Past-Perfect. Thou hadst been. Thou hadst rowed. 
Future. Thou shalt or wilt be. Thou shalt or wilt row. [rowed. 

Future-Perfect. Thou shalt or wilt have been. Thou shalt or wilt have 
44 Thou wert, thou art, the cherished madness of my heart." — Byron. 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Present. If thou be. If thou row or do row. 
Past. If thou wert; or, Wert thou. If thou rowed or didst row. 
Past-Perfect. If thou hadst been; or, Hadst thou been. If thou hadst rowed. 
" If thou were," and t4 If thou had been," are sometimes used by good writers. 



158 



TEXT COURSE. 



Potential Mood. 

Present. Thou mayst be. Thou mayst row. 

Present-Perfect. Thou mayst have been. Thou mayst have rowed. 
Past. Thou mightst be. Thou mightst row. 

Past-Perfect. Thou mightst have been. Thou mightst have rowed. 
Like may and might are also used can, must, could, would, and should. P. 187. 

Imperative Mood. 

Present, Be ; or, Do thou be. Row ; Do row ; or, Do thou row. 

iKS 3 * Some teachers may still prefer the entire conjugation ; and since the verb 
be is used very frequently, even as the basis of other forms, we present here the 
entire conjugation of this verb through the four moods. 

Principal Parts: be or am, was, being, been. 



Indicative Mood. 



Future- 
Perfect. 



Present Present- Past- 

Tense. Perfect. Past. Perfect. Future. 

*j f 1. I am, have been, was, had been, shall be, shall have been, 

"»-{ 2. You are, have been, were, had been, will be, will have been, 

i£ [ 3. He is ; has been ; was ; had been ; will be ; will have been ; 

^ f I. We are, have been, were, had been, shall be, shall have been, 

| -{ 2. You are, have been, were, had been, will be, will have been, 

°h (^ 3. They are. have been. were, had been, will be. will have been. 

Subjunctive Mood. 





Present. 


Past 




Past-Perfect. 


1. If I 


be, 


were, 


had been, 


2. If you be, 


were 


'> 


had been, 


3. If he 


be; 


were 


i 


had been ; 


1. If Ave 


be, 


were, 


had been, 


2. If you be, 


were, 


had been, 


3. If they be. 


were. 


had been. 






Potential 


Mood. 






Present. 


Present-Perfect. 


Past. 


Past-Perfect. 


1. I 


may be, 


may have been, 


might be, 


might have been, 


2. You 


may be, 


may have been, 


might be, 


might have been, 


3. He 


may be ; 


may have been ; 


might be ; 


might have been ; 


1. We 


may be, 


may have been, 


might be, 


might have been, 


2. You 


may be, 


may have been, 


might be, 


might have been, 


3. They 


may be. 


may have been. 
Imperative 


might be. 
Mood. 


might have been. 






Present Tense. 




Singular, 2. Be thou ; or, Do thou be. 


Plural, 2. 


Be ye ; or, Do ye be. 



Participles : Being, been, having been. Infinitives : To be, to 
have been. 



SENTENCES. — VERBS. 159 

Questions. — What is The conjugation of a verb ?— a synopsis of a verb ? 
Conjugate the verb be, through the present indicative. Give the synopsis of write, 
through the indicative mood. From what can all the parts of a verb be easily 
formed ? How are the perfect tenses formed ? — the future ? — the emphatic ? Of 
what forms is the verb be the basis ? Which auxiliaries take the simple parti- 
ciples ? What do the other auxiliaries take ? How are the auxiliaries arranged 
in the predicate ? What are the signs of the indicative mood ? What is the 
present tense of this mood, of what does it consist, or how is it made? — the 
perfect? — the past? etc. (To find a particular tense of any verb, let the pupil 
first give the principal parts of the verb, then mention the signs of the mood, 
then consider whether the tense is perfect or not, and thus proceed till he finds 
the tense. He may then go to the form required, and conjugate the verb to any 
particular person and number. In the hands of a skillful teacher, this method 
will work much better than the old method.) 

Exercises. 

Most of the derivative verbs are formed from nouns or adjec- 
tives ; and these verbs generally signify 6 to make or become, 9 w to 
make the ordinary use of,' fc to impart or apply the quality or 
thing.' 

Form and spell, making the requisite euphonic changes ; and define : — 

Black, -en, sharp, soft, moist, hard, tough, rough, sweet, less, 
bright, light, tight, dead, strength, length, quick, straight, thick, 
fright, haste, white, wide, ripe, glad, sad, red, fat, flat ; beck, -on, 
blaze, reck ; brand, -ish, bland, public, famine, languid ; legal, -ize y 
modern, real, ideal, organ, familiar, character, moral, spiritual, 
ethereal, civil, central, natural, theory, melody, apology, colony, 
tyrant, tyrann-, dogmatist, dogmat- ; critic, ise ; alien, -ate, origin, 
fabric, ulcer, office, luxury, facility, facilit-, germ, germin-, populous, 
popul-, stimulus, vacant, vac-, circular, grain, granu-, spoil, spoli-, 
name, nomin-; beauty, -fij, glory, simple, simpli-, intense, pure, 
mode, just, class, sign, clear, clari-, right, recti-, peace, paci-, 
special, sped-, example, exempli-, fruit, fructi- ; prophet, -esy; 
cloth, -e, (sharp ending to flat or rough,) breath, wreath, bath, 
price, -ze, glass, grass, advice, -se, excuse, (z sound,) abuse, — grief, 
-ve, thief, half, shelf; cloud, be-, fool, praise, friend, dew ; power, 
em-, body, bitter, boss ; camp, en-, shrine, compass, dear ; kennel, 
un-, bosom, sex, man ; ab'stract, abstract' (change of accent) ; 
ac'cent, accent' ; cem'ent, cement' ; com'pound, compound' ; con- 
flict, conflict' ; con'trast, contrast' ; im'port, import' ; sur'vey, sur- 
vey' ; tor'ment, torment' ; reb'el, rebel' ; gold, gild (vowel change) ; 
blood, bleed : food, feed ; also causatives, diminutives, or frequenta- 
tive s, by change of vowel or ending, and chiefly from other verbs, 
— rise, raise ; fall,/e//; sit, set; roll, reel; drop, drip; rest, roost; 
wring, wrench ; drink, drench ; tweak, twitch ; wake, watch ; set, 
settle ; stride, straddle ; gripe, grapple ; game, gamble ; daze, daz- 
zle ; beat, batter ; spit, sputter ; pat, patter ; blow, bluster ; gleam, 
glimmer ; soil, sully ; wear, worry. 

Make sentences in which the following names of objects are used as verbs 
that signify to apply, or to make the customary use of: — 

Hoe, shoe, shovel, plane, chisel, hammer, smoke, garden, farm, 



160 TEXT COURSE. 

weed, plant, man, coop, soap, shear, gem, fire, lance, spear, fence, 
plow, stone. 

The names of most instrumental things can be used as such verbs, or to ex- 
press the customary use made of the things. 

Give the principal parts ; and tell whether the verb is regular or irregular .• — 
Flow, fly, flee, sow, grow, sin, win, spin, skim, swim, heal, steal, 
fling, bring, spread, dread, fold, hold, uphold, close, lose, loose, 
blind, find, fine, reel, feel, lend, loan, need, feed, land, stand, heat, 
eat, free, see, play, slay, may, call, fall, fell, bind, bound, come, 
welcome, hive, strive, live, give, rise, raise, tell, toll, lie, lay, seat, 
set, sit. 

Connect each pair of nouns by a suitable verb, or make a sentence : — 
Farmer . . . fields. Merchant . . . goods. Miller . . . corn. Gar- 
dener . . . flowers. Horse . . . plow. Fish . . . water. Child . . . 
book. Bees and butterflies . . . honey. 

Mention the predicate-verbs, the participles, and the infinitives; and 
define them : — 

Swallows return in spring. Light comes from the sun. The 
birds are busy in building their nests. I like to hear the rustling 
of the wind among the trees. Flowers are blooming everywhere. 
Think before you speak. Gaze on that arch above, that glittering 
vault of stars. Zeal, tempered by discretion, is irresistible. Life 
is too precious to be lost in idleness. The lowing oxen and bleat- 
ing sheep came in herds, frightened by the storm. Nobody would 
venture to represent angels and saints as drinking and laughing at 
table. The mail brought us news of farms overflowed, and people 
drowned. The bridge being washed away, we prepared ourselves 
to swim over the stream. Most poets have Alexandered their 
heroes in lying odes (Dryden). I'll fortune-tell thee ! (Shak.) 
This out-Herods Herod (Id.). 

Mention the verbs, whether transitive or intransitive, and in what voice 
the transitive verbs are : — 

I heard the owl hoot. Nightingales haunt close shrubberies 
and copses, especially where cowslips grow. The clouds are mov- 
ing towards the east. He taught us music. Violets bloom early. 
The city was destroyed by an earthquake. The wine tastes sour ; 
I have tasted it. The Swiss are strongly affected by their native 
music. Coal-fields are the remains of forests which have been 
buried deep in the earth. The Laplanders may be divided into 
fishers and mountaineers. A smile played on his lips, and in his 
voice was heard paternal sweetness. Let them depart. I was 
told not to go. The lines read well, and she can read them well. 
They talked the night away. Haste thee, nymph. He told me 
that you were here. I asked him where he was going. He who 
thinks badly, acts badly. They caused him to be accused. The 
horse is training, and the stable is rebuilding. Dinner is cooking. 
Your coat needs mending. Money was wanting to rebuild the 
hotel. Soft eyes looked love to eyes which spake again. 



SENTENCES. — VERBS. 161 

Change the active voice into the passive, and the passive into the active : — 
A dog bit him. Europe is surrounded on three sides by water. 
Dr. Livingstone has explored a large part of Africa. The English 
were conquered by the Normans. We were delayed by a storm. 
Our gardener sowed the seeds carefully. Birds build their nests 
with great skill. The poor fellow worked hard ; his wheelbarrow 
was often filled and emptied, and by and by it was turned into a 
cart. 

Mention the auxiliary verbs, and what they express : — 
God has made every thing good, but man is not always satisfied. 
When Columbus had finished speaking, the sovereigns sank upon 
their knees. A better house could have been built for less money. 
Lazy people always do as little as they can. His right will be con- 
tested, though he may have been fairly elected. He has not so 
much as he has had, and he certainly does as little as he ever did. 
He has left nothing. He has nothing left. The man has his work 
assigned to him, and he must set it done. 

In what mood and tense do you find do? — did 9 — have ? — had? — 
shall or will 1 — shall or will have ? — may, can, or must ? — may, can, or 
must have? — might, could, would, or should? — might, could, would, or 
should have ? What is the sign of the present indicative ? — the past ? — 
the future I — the present-perfect % — the past-perfect 1 — the future ? — 
the future-perfect ? — the present subjunctive ? — the past ? — the past- 
perfect ? — the present potential ? — the present-perfect ? — the past ? — 
the past-perfect ? 

Change the following verbs into the other tenses of the same mood : — 

I write. I may write. If I write. If I be writing. 

Change into the other forms of the same tense : — 

He strikes. He struck. He has struck. You rule. You 
ruled. You have ruled. 

Give, in the order of the Conjugation, the infinitives, then the participles ; 
first in the active voice, and then in the passive, if the verb can have the 
passive voice : — 

Move, rise, spring, degrade, drown, invigorate, overwhelm, bleed. 

Give the synopsis of the verb be with /, through each tense of all the 
moods ; first affirmatively throughout, then interrogatively, then nega- 
tively ; — with thou ; — with he ; — with they ; — with you. Now of / 
and he together, or in pairs, through all the tenses ; — of he and they ; — 
of you and thou. Give in like manner the synopsis of see, through both 
voices; of love, bind, carry, and permit; — of rise, in the progressive 
form. 

Give thou with each auxiliary except be ; — give he; — give they. 

Conjugate each of the following verbs, beginning ivith the frst person 
singular, and stopping with tlie subject : — 

The boy learns. The leaves are falling. Flowers must fade. 

Jane reads. Jane and Eliza read. Jane or Eliza reads. 

(Thus: Singular, 1st person, I learn, 2d person, You learn; 3d person, 
He, or the boy, learns.) 

11 



162 TEXT COURSE. 

Tell of what mood and tense, then conjugate throughout the tense, beginning 
with the first person singular : — 

I imagine. He suffered. We have lost it. I had been plowing 
I will visit you. Were I. Had I been. If he were. Were I 
invited. Had I been invited. If I be invited. They shall have 
written. I lay. We read. It may pass. You should have come. 
We may have been robbed. I was speaking. It is rising. You 
might be preparing. Had you been studying. Do you hope? 
Did she smile ? If I do fail. If thou rely. Thou art. Art thou ? 
He forgiveth. Dost thou not forgive ? It must have happened. 
They are gone. Thou art going. 

Predicate each of the following verbs correctly of thou ; then of he, and 
of they : — 

Am, was, have been, would have been, are deceived, had been, 
do say, did maintain, gave, touched, cast, amass, recommend, be 
discouraged, shall have been, will pardon, may have been rejoi- 
cing, was elected, should have been elected. 

The verbs, and why : — 

Regular or irregular, and why : — 

Transitive or intransitive, and why ; with voice, and why : — 

Mood and tense, and why ; with emphatic or progressive form, and why : — 

Person and number, and why : — 

He is reading the Bible. We have slept. She died. Were 
we surpassed. You had sent him. Take care, lest you lose it. 
My time might have been improved better. The corn was ripen- 
ing. The wind has risen. 

o 

For additional exercises, if needed, use the examples on p. 33. The best 
mode of drilling pupils on verbs is simply this : Whenever the pupil parses a 
verb, let him give the synopsis of it through all the preceding moods, or only 
through the mood in which it is, to the tense in which it is found ; then let him 
conjugate it to the person and number of its subject. By this process he will 
soon become master of all parts of the verb. 

Relations. 

I. Words are attached to verbs, in sentences, — 

1. Subjectively. " The water is deep, and the wind blows furiously." 

2. Objectively. " I know him, and I know that he is honest." 

3. Attributively. " He is competent, and he is a gentleman" 

4. Adverbially. " I can not wait here \ till you return." 

It is remarkable that the expression, under each of these heads, may 
be a word, a phrase, or a clause / and the different terms may be 
attached singly or in series to the verb, and in any length or mixture 
of series. We are here concerned only with the verb and its subject; 
the other terms are noticed under other parts of speech. 

Rub X. — A predicate-verb must agree with its sub- 
ject, in person and number. 

That is, the verb must have the right form, according to the Conjugation. 



SENTENCES. — VERBS. 163 

Person of the Subject. 

First person and second or third are equivalent to first person 5 
second and third, to second. You and /, or he and /, = ice ; you 
and he =. you. When or or nor joins nominatives that differ in 
person, the predicate agrees with the nearest nominative, and is 
understood with the others ; as, " You or I am to blame ; " " I, he, 
or you are to blame." 
Singular Subjects, 
1« Singular nominative. 

2. Singular collective noun, denoting the collection as one thing. 

3. Singular nominatives, joined by or or nor. [neither, many a, or no. 

4. Singular nominative or nominatives, modified by each, every, either, 

5. Singular nominatives, joined by and, but denoting only one object. 

6. Plural nominative, used as the name of a single thing. [with each. 

7. Singular nominatives following the verb, when the verb is understood 

Ex. — 1. "The boy studies.'" 2. "The congregation ivas large." 3. 
" The dog or the cat has eaten the meat." 4. " Every one hopes, but no one 
knows his destiny." " Full many a flower is born to blush unseen." 5. 
" That great scholar and statesman is dead." '• Moore's ' Paradise and the 
Peri' is a fine poem." " To turn and flee was now impossible." — Irving. 
(The two acts are so closely connected, that they are regarded as one thing.) 
6. " The * Pleasures of Hope ' [a poem] was written by Campbell." 7. " Thine 
is the kingdom, and the power [is thine], and the glory." 

Plural Subjects. 

1. Plural nominative. 

2. Singular collective noun, when the reference is to the individuals. 

3. Singular nominatives, joined by and, 

4. A singular and a plural nominative, joined by or or nor. 

5. A singular noun, used by synecdoche for a plural. 

Ex. — 1. " The boys study." 2. " The people have assembled. 11 3. " John 
and James study." 4. " The king or his advisers were opposed to that course; 
while neither the prince nor his friends were prepared to defend it." — Hume. 
Sometimes the verb agrees with the nearest nominative; as, u Where there 
is an infant or infants who are yet," etc. — Mo. Statutes. 5. *• Forty head 
of cattle were grazing on the meadow." 

Nominatives connected by than, as, as well as, and not, not — but, not 
only — but also, or in any similar sense, are subjects of different proposi- 
tions, and each verb must agree with its own subject. Antecedents and 
subjects have the same syntax, in regard to person and number. Some- 
times it is difficult to determine which is the subject ; but all further 
minutiae, under this head, we must leave to the judgment of pupil and 
teacher. 

When methinJcs or methought occurs, let the pupil say that it is used, by the 
figure inaUage. for / think, I thought ; and then let him. parse the substituted 
words. When meseems or methought occurs, let him supply to and it. 



164 TEXT COURSE. 

II. A Participle or an Infinitive may be used, — 

1* As the complement to an auxiliary. 

2. As a participle or infinitive proper. 

3. As a noun. 

4. As an adjective. 

5. As an adverb. 

6. As a dependent clause. 

Ex. — 1. "I am writing." "I have written." "The letter is tvritten." 
"lean write." "I should write." 2. "Having suffered much himself, he 
founded a hospital, to help all persons afflicted m the same way." 3. "To 
learn without studying is impossible." 4. " This drizzling weather gives us 
an opportunity to plant our cabbage." What kind of weather? what op- 
portunity? 5* "The water is scalding hot, and hard to hoW How hot? 
hard in what respect? 6. " Generally speaking, young men are the best for 
business." "To be plain with you, I do not approve your plan." This last 
head, which is designed to reach a few cases that can not well be referred to 
any of the preceding heads, really includes all the preceding heads except 
the first, and comprises nearly the entire syntax of participles and infini- 
tives; for almost every participle or infinitive implies a statement that is in 
some respect dependent or subordinate. See KerPs Composition and Rhetoric, 
pp. 41-43. 

Most Participles, not used as nouns, express, — 

1. Condition. " We saw our homes desolated. 1 * 

2. Manner. " The cars came puffing and clattering." 

3. Cause. " Believing him to be honest, I trusted him." 

4. Time. " The sun having risen, we renewed our journey." 
Most Infinitives, not used as nouns, express, — 

1. Purpose. " And fools, who came to scoff, remained to pray.* 9 

2. Respect wherein. " This is a pleasant room to sleep in." 

In syntax, participles and infinitives are generally attached to other words 
by some of the same subordinate ideas that are expressed by adverbs, prepo- 
sitions, relative pronouns, and subordinate conjunctions. They are the 
verb, with greater liberty of syntax; for the predicate-verb can only be the 
principal part of a predicate, and can not express the meaning of the verb in 
any other relation. They drop person and number to become subordinaie y 
or to acquire this greater liberty of syntax. They express time relatively, 
not absolutely; and in proportion as they become nouns or adjectives, they 
generally lose the idea of time. Participles take up present and past time; 
infinitives, chiefly future. Hence participles frequently resemble the indica- 
tive mood, and infinitives the potential ; for the present and past are matters 
of fact, but the future is contingent. Only the simple participles can be used 
as adjectives before nouns; and only the simple participle that ends with ing y 
and the complex participles, can be used as nouns. In the sense of nouns, 
participles are used chiefly after prepositions; and infinitives in other situa- 
tions, especially as reflective, subjective, attributive, or appositive nouns. 
We can say, " To be — or not to be" etc. ; but we could not say, "Being — or 
not being," etc. Infinitives never let go the high, abstract nature of the verb, 
and therefore they take Qnly the modifiers or adjuncts of verbs ; but parti- 
ciples frequently degenerate entirely into nouns or adjectives, or become 
prepositions, conjunctions, etc. Participles, when not npuns, have the syn- 
tax of adjectives; and therefore w§ huve included bgth under the same Rule 



SENTENCES. — VERBS. 165 

(IX.). Even when the participle has the sense of an adverbial element in 
Analysis, it is still like the predicate or adverbial adjective, or this could be 
used in its place; as, " He fell txhausUd ; " " He fell dead." And compare 
— " A clear brook," " A purling brook; " " The brook is clear," " The brook 
is purling," " The brook is frozen." Since every act or state must belong to 
some object, there is no good reason why the infinitive should not likewise 
be always referred, in syntax, to its subject; but since the infinitive is more 
like a dependent clause than the participle is, and is also more abstract, the 
following Rule is probably the best in practice. 

Bule XI. — An infinitive depends on the word which 
it limits, or which leads to its use. 

" We were anxious to return that night." 
" The Passions oft, to hear her shell, 
Thronged around her magic cell." 

" The definitions are so arranged as to be easily learned" 

To return limits anxious, by showing as to what we were anxious ; and it 
therefore depends on anxious, according to Rule XI. To hear limits thronged, 
by showing for what purpose ; and it therefore depends on thronged, according 
to Rule XI. To be learned depends on as, according to the last clause of Rule 
XI. An infinitive depends on the word with which it makes syntax. 

If teachers could be drawn out of their ruts of thought, they would probahly 
find the following general Rule the best for all participles and infinitives that are 
not attached to auxiliary verbs : — 

Bule XI. — A participle or an infinitive, with its ad- 
juncts, has the syntax of a dependent clause ; or is 
used in the sense of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. 

Rule IX. should then be changed to the following : — 

Hub IS. — An article or an adjective belongs to the 
noun or pronoun to which it relates. 

j(^The teacher should explain and illustrate the last four pages more fully. 

ANALYSIS AND PAUSING. 
A Verb, predicate, or attribute may be modified or 
enlarged, — 

1. By an objective noun or pronoun. 

2. By a predicate noun or pronoun. 

3. By a predicate adjective or adjective expression. 

4. By an adverb or adverbial expression. 

5. By a participle or participial phrase. 

6. By an infinitive or infinitive phrase. 

7. By a prepositional phrase. 

Ex. — 1. " He planted a tree, and I saw him \ plant it." 2. " He is a good 
teacher; and the conclusion is, that zoe must employ him." 3. " He is old, | 
without friends, | and not as he was." 4. " He went yesterday \ to the city, 



166 TEXT COURSE. 

after he had eaten his breakfast." 5. " He walks limping." 6. " He came to 
assist us." 7. " He is in trouble, and you must go with him." 

Prepositional phrases are either adverbial or adjective, and participial 
or infinitive expressions are substantive, adverbial, or adjective ; there- 
fore if we regard syntax, rather than form, the seven kinds of modifiers 
or adjuncts may be resolved into four kinds only, each of which consists 
of ivords, phrases, and clauses : — 

1. Objective words, phrases, and clauses. 

2. Predicate-substantive words, phrases, and clauses. 

3. Predicate-adjective words, phrases, and clauses. 

4. Adverbial words, phrases, and clauses. 

Participles and infinitives have the same modifiers, or adjuncts, 
as predicate-verbs ; but participles may become nouns so far as to 
take the modifiers of nouns, and even some of the inflections and 
government of nouns. 

Participles and infinitives partake of the nature of nouns, ad- 
jectives, or adverbs, and therefore can modify the same elements 
modified by these parts of speech. 

Participles and infinitives are chiefly nouns when they have 
case ; and participles are chiefly adjectives when placed immedi- 
ately before the nouns to which they belong. 

Punctuation. — 1. A participial expression that is used in the 
sense of a clause, rather than of a simple adjective or adverb, is 
generally set off by the comma. 

2. An infinitive expression, not closely connected with the word 
on which it depends, or placed before the subject of the sentence, 
is generally set off by the comma. 

Ex. — "He departed, greatly vexed at his disappointment." " To judge 
correctly, all the circumstances must be considered." 

The subject-nominative and predicate-verb, being the center and basis of the 
statement, and belonging to each other, it is reasonable that they should be 
separated by as little of punctuation as possible. See p. 99. 

Parsing. 

1. A ver\ and why ; principal parts — and whether regular or 
irregular, and why ; transitive (with voice, and why) or intransitive 
(or neuter), and why ; mood, and why ; tense, and why (with form, 
when emphatic or progressive) ; conjugation ; the person and num- 
ber (with style, when solemn). Pule X. 
2. A participle or an infinitive, and why ; present or perfect, and why; 

transitive, with voice, \ -. i . j to what it belongs. Pule IX. 

intransitive or neuter, ) ' 1 on what it depends. Pule XI. 



SENTENCES. — VERBS. 167 

It will be also well to state whether the participle is simple or complex ; 
and when the infinitive or complex participle is progressive, this should be 
stated in connection with " present " or " perfect." When a participle or an 
infinitive is also used as a noun, or when a participle is chiefly an adjective, 
the double nature should be shown by parsing the word both as participle or 
infinitive, and also as noun or adjective. 

The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. 

Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is The 
curfew; the subject-nominative is curfew, and it is modified by the article 
The. Tolls the knell of parting day is the predicate ; tolls is the predicate-verb, 
and it is limited by the object knell, which is modified by the article the and 
the prepositional phrase of parting day. Day is modified by parting, and 
joined to knell by the preposition of. 

Tolls is a verb, it expresses the act of a subject ; principal parts — 
prcs. toll, past tolled, pres. part, tolling, perf. part, tolled; regular, it takes 
the ending ed; transitive, it has an object (knell), — and in the active 
voice, it represents its subject as acting ; indicative mood, it expresses an 
actual occurrence; present tense, it denotes simply present time; (singu- 
lar number — First person, I toll; 2d p., You toll; 3d p., It, or the cur- 
few, tolls ;) and in the third person, singular number, to agree with its 
subject curfew, according to Rule X. 

Abr. — Tolls is a regular transitive verb, from the verb toll; (prin- 
cipal parts, — pres. toll, past tolled, perf. part, tolled;) in the indicative 
mood, present tense ; and in the 3p., s.n., to agree with its subject cur- 
few, according to Rule X. 

Parting is a participial adjective. As a participle, it is present and 
intransitive ; as an adjective, it is descriptive, in the positive degree, and 
belongs to day, according to Rule IX. 

The sun having set, we were obliged to return home. 

Having set is a participle, — an unpredicative inflected form of 
the verb, resembling a noun, an adjective, or a dependent clause; com- 
plex, it consists of having, combined with another participle ; perfect, it 
represents the act or state as completed ; intransitive, it does not have an 
object ; and it belongs to sun, according to Rule IX. 

Abr. — Having set is a complex perfect participle, from the irregular, 
intransitive verb set, set, setting, set ; and it belongs to sun, according to 
Rule IX. 

To return is an infinitive, — an unpredicative form of the verb, 
beginning generally with to, and resembling a noun or a dependent 
clause ; present, it denotes simply the act ; intransitive, it does not have 
an object ; and it depends on was obliged, according to Rule XI. 

Abr. — To return is a present infinitive, from the regular,- intransitive 
verb return, returned, returning, returned; and it depends on was obliged, 
according to Rule XI. 



168 TEXT COURSE. 

Not to be sometimes deceived is impossible. 
To be deceived is an infinitive used as a noun. As an infinitive, 
it is present, transitive, in the passive voice, and modified adverbially. 
As a noun, it is of the neuter gender, third person, singular number ; 
and with the rest of the phrase of which it is the chief word, it is used 
as the subject of the verb is, according to Note IV. 

I insist on writing the letter. 

Writing is a participial noun, from the irregular verb write, wrote, 
writing, written. As & participle, it is present, transitive, and in the ac- 
tive voice. As a noun, it is of the neuter gender, third person, singular 
number ; and in the objective case, governed by the preposition on, ac- 
cording to Rule V. 

Abbreviated Parsing. 

Let rv stand for " regular verb ; " irv, for irregular ; ta, for transitive 
and active ; tp, for transitive and passive ; int, for intransitive ; im, for 
indicative mood; sm, for subjunctive; pm, for potential ; ipm, for im- 
perative ; pr, for present tense ; prp, for present-perfect ; pt, for past 
tense; ptp, for past-perfect; fr, for future tense; frp, for future-perfect; 
em, for emphatic form ; prg, for progressive form ; person and number, 
as heretofore ; ss, for solemn style. Let sp stand for " simple partici- 
ple ; " cp, for complex participle ; i, for infinitive ; pr, for present ; pt, 
for perfect or past ; and use, as heretofore, the abbreviations for parsing 
nouns and adjectives. 

Let them return better equipped. 

Let — irv, ta, ipm, pr, 2p, sn ; and agrees with thou, understood. Rule X. 
Them — pp, eg, 3p, pn, oc — governed by Let. Rule IV. 
Return — i, pr, int ; and depends on them, and partly on Let. Rule XI. 
Equipped — sp, pt, tp ; and belongs to them. Rule IX. 

Exercises. 

Analyze the sentences ; parse the articles, adjectives, nouns, pronouns, and verbs •• — 
Predicate- Verbs. 
Regular and Irregular. Transitive and Intransitive. 
The sun warms the earth. They struck me. 
Birds fly. Kivers flow. It was I. 
The rose is beautiful. Tierce was the conflict. 

Voices. 
She broke the pitcher. The pitcher was broken. 
They named her Mary. She was named Mary. 



SENTENCES. — VERBS. 169 

Moods. 

Kobert sold his horse. Can you spell phthisic ? 

Were he rich, he would be lazy. Be sincere. 
Tenses. 
The distant hills look blue. The robber was caught. 
The soldiers will be attacked. Had I known it. 
The day will have passed. Do not venture yourself. 
The apples might have been eaten. Tall pines are rustling. 
She may have been handsome. She has been teaching. 
I do object. Thou hast a heart of adamant. 

Persons and Numbers. 
Bees collect honey. Reckless youth makes rueful age. 
Time and tide wait for no man. You and I are invited. 
Monday or Tuesday was the day on which it happened. 
His family is large. The multitude pursue pleasure. 
Every house has a garden. Who are they ? 

Wait is of the 3d p., pi. n., to agree with Time and tide, — a plural subject, — 
according to Rule XI. See pp. 96, 162, 163. 

Participles. 

The Indians fled, leaving their mules tied to the bushes. 

The machinery, being oiled, runs well. 

Time and thinking tame the strongest grie£ 

Of making many books, there is no end. 

Infinitives. 

We had a great curiosity to see the battle-field. 

I ordered him to be brought. We are glad to see you. 

He ought to have written. Let no one pass. 

She is wiser than to believe his flattery. 

Not to love is unnatural. I forgot to mention it. 

It is reasonable to suppose that he will try to escape. 
Delightful task ! to rear the tender thought, 
To teach the young idea how to shoot. 

Questions. — What is Rule X? Mention the kinds of singular subjects; — 
of plural. How may a participle or an infinitive be used ? How are most parti- 
ciples used? — most infinitives ? What is the Rule for infinitives ? What gen- 
eral Rule is given ? How many and what modifiers or adjuncts can a verb have ? 
Into what four classes may these be divided ? What modifiers can participles 
and infinitives have ? What else is said of participles and infinitives ? How are 
participial or infinitive expressions punctuated ? How should a predicate-verb 
be parsed ?— a participle or an infinitive ? 



170 TEXT COURSE. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Under Rules X. and VIII. 

Circumstances alters cases. The molasses are excellent. 

Incorrect : alters, in the third person singular, should be alter, in the third 

Serson plural, to agree with circumstances, according to Rule X. (Repeat the 
ule.) 

I always learns my lessons before I goes to school. 

My outlays is greater than my income. 

I called, but you was not at home. (See pp. 154 and 163.) 

His pulse are beating too fast. "Was you there ? 

He dare not meddle with it. She need not trouble herself. 

Need and dare, especially the former, are sometimes used by good writers in 
stead of needs and dares ,• but it is generally better to avoid such usage. 

Five dimes is half a dollar. There was only seven of us. 

Peace has at last come, and with it has come many changes. 

Thou heard the storm ; did thou not ? Thou shall go. 

Oats is sowed in spring. Tlon are pronounced shun. 

Such is the tales his Nubians tell. Every ten tens makes a hundred. 

" Reveries of a Bachelor " were written by D. G. Mitchell. 

Everybody are disposed to help him. 

Each strove to recover their position. (Not common possession.) 

Every person are hereby notified to pay their taxes. 

Neither one are suitable to my purpose. [paper. 

Everybody is fighting, and have been for several days. — News- 

Every tall tree and every steeple were blown down. 

Every soldier and every oflicer remained awake at their station. 

Every leaf, every twig, and every drop of water, teem with life. 

Every skiff and canoe were loaded to the water's edge. 

No wife, no mother, and no child were there to comfort him. 

No thought, no word, no action, whether they be good or evil, can 

escape the notice of God. [choly regret. 

Many a man looks back on the days of their youth, with melan- 

Exception. — Writers occasionally allow themselves to be governed by the 
logical sense, or by euphony or attraction. 

" In Hawick twinkled many a liglit, 
Behind him soon they set in night." — Sir Walter Scott. 

They, in this sentence, is allowable ; because the clauses are not so closely 
connected that the pronoun it would preserve the full sense. 

Either Thomas or George have to stay at home. 

Neither the father nor the son had ever been distinguished for 
their business qualifications. If you should see my horse or 
mule, I wish you would have them turned into your pasture. 



SENTENCES. — VERBS. 171 

Neither Holmes, Forbes, nor Jenkins tvere classmates of mine. 
Riding on horseback, or rowing a skiff, are good exercise. 
It is neither Osmyn nor Jane Shore that speak. — Blair, [son. 
Neither history nor tradition furnish such information. — Robert- 
A silk dress or a flowered bonnet were then great rarities. — Flint. 
Where Leonidas, with his chosen band, were cut off. — Kames. 

The syntax of the last three sentences, though in accordance with the Classic 
languages, is not allowable in modern English. 

Mary and her cousin was at our house last week. [him. 

Time and tide waits for no man. This and that house belongs to 
Hill and dale doth boast Thy blessing. — Milton. 

Milton, in imitation of Greek and Latin syntax, frequently uses a singular 
verb after two nominatives joined by and, where, in modern English, a plural 
verb is required. 

In all her movements there is grace and dignity. (Change.) 

Two and two is four, and one [and four] is five. — Pope. 

There seems to be war and disturbance in Kansas. 

Every store and residence were pillaged. 

Every merchant's store and residence was pillaged. 

Enough money and time has already been expended. 

Enough of money and time have already been expended. 

Both minister and magistrate are sometimes compelled to choose 

between his duty and his reputation. 
For the sake of brevity and force, one or more words is sometimes 

omitted. One or more persons was concerned. 
Neither beauty, wealth, nor talents was injurious to his modesty. 
I borrow one peck, or eight quarts, and add ... to the upper term. 
Has the horses been fed ? There's two or three of us. 
The victuals was cold. There is no tidings, [was ridges of hills. 
There seems to be no others included. On each side of the river 
There was no memoranda kept of the sales. 
The book is one of the best that ever was written. 
Such accommodations as was necessary, was provided. 
He is one of the preachers that belongs to the church militant, and 

takes considerable interest in politics. 
What is twenty-two poor years to the finishing a lawsuit ! — Swift. 
There go a gang of deer. Generation after generation pass away. 
A committee were appointed to examine the accounts. 
The society hold their meetings on Fridays. 
The fleet were seen sailing up the channel. 



172 TEXT COURSE. 

While ever and anon there falls 

Huge heaps of hoary mouldered walls. — Dyer. 

The committee disagrees. At least half the members was present. 

The higher class looks with scorn on those below them. 

All the world is spectators of your conduct. 

In France, the peasantry goes barefoot, while the middle sort 

makes use of wooden shoes. 
Send the multitude away, that it may buy itself food. 

Hemarlc. — No perfectly reliable rule for collective nouns can be given. 
That a collective noun denotes persons ; that it seldom or never has the plural 
form ; that the predicate is true of the individuals; and that the individuals are 
separated in place or time, — are considerations that weigh in favor of plural 
construction. 

Five pair was sold. Fifty head was drowned. 

Pair and head, when thus plural in sense without being plural in form, re- 
semble collective nouns. 

Every one of the witnesses testify to the same thing. 

Mere adjuncts to the nominative do not affect the form of the verb. 
Each one of the vowels represent several sounds. [left. 

How are each of the relatives used ? Neither of us have a dollar 
Either one of the schools are good enough. 
A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. 
Which one of these soldiers were wounded ? 
The sum of twenty thousand dollars have been expended. 
A hundred thousand dollars of revenue is now in the treasury. 
The mother, with her daughter, have spent the summer here. 
The mechanism of clocks and watches were unknown. — Hume. 
Nothing but expense and trouble have grown out of the business. 
The richness of their arms and apparel were conspicuous. 
Each one of us have as much as we can do. (Rules X. and VIII.) 
Neither of us is willing to give up our claim. 

Correct, if common possession is meant ; if not, our should be his. 
There is more stamina in the Western men. — Sherman. 

Js and stamina will not agree; better say, " more of stamina." 

The idea of such a collection of men as make an army. — Locke. 

Lafayette Place, or Gardens, occupy several acres. 

Two parallel lines is the sign of equality. 

The sign of equality are two parallel lines. — consists of — ■ 

My cause and theirs is one. — Dryden. Yourself has asked it. — Id. 

The few dollars which he owes me is a matter of small consequence. 

Virtue and mutual confidence is the soul of friendship. 

To the Christian the pleasures of this world is vanity. 

This sentence, aa it stands, means that Christians take the greatest delight in 
vanity. 



SENTENCES. — VERBS, 173 

Twelve single things, viewed as a whole, is called a dozen. 
Said the burning Candle, " My use and beauty is my death." 
Minced pies was regarded as a profane viand, by the sectaries. 
It is vanity and selfishness that ma a woman a coquet. 

In such constructions, the genuine antecedent is it ; but the relative clause is 
usually attracted into the nearer Or identifying word or words, and agrees with 
them in grammatical properties. " It is the mental and moral forces which 
govern the world." — Everett. 

Homer, as well as Virgil, were translated and studied on the banks 

of the Rhine. — Gibbon. 
All the speakers, but especially the last one, was very eloquent. 
He, not less than you, deserve punishment. 
He, and not I, am responsible. I, and not he, is responsible. 
The father, and the son too, were in the battle. 

" Ay, and no too, was no good divinity." — Shakespeare. 
The sons, and also the father, was in the battle. 
Not his wealth, but his talents, deserves praise. 
It is his wealth, and not his talents, that give him position. 
It is his talents, and not his wealth, that gives him position. 
There is sometimes more than one auxiliary to the verb. — Angus. 

The comparison itself excludes one term from the other. 

You and your companions must not forget their duty. 

John, you, and I are attached to their country. 

Neither he nor you was mentioned. Is I or he to blame for it ? 

On that occasion, neither he nor I were consulted. 

General liemarh, — In language, there is a constant warfare "between 
sound and sense. Sound generally yields to sense; but sometimes it will not, 
and then it may be best to end the strife by finding a different expression. Ma- 
caulay wrote, " Two thousand pounds a year was then a large income for a bar- 
rister;" "A coach and six, in our day, is seldom seen;" allowable. "Little 
and often Jills the purse," is also a proper expression; for it means, "To put in 
little and often," etc. " Young's ' Night Thoughts ' is a gloomy poem," — allow- 
able ; but, " The ashes was carried out," " The Alps was in sight," are not allow- 
able. The United States is now at peace with every nation "(Grant), — not 
indefensible; still, it would be better to say, "The government or republic of 
the United States is ; or, " The people of the United States are," etc. 

Obs. — The verb must generally be repeated, when 
a different form of it is required. 

Money is scarce, and times hard. (Supply are.) 

Allowable, by a figure called zeugma j yet when a verb or an auxiliary is* 
omitted near a different form of the same verb or auxiliary, the attraction be- 
tween the expressed verb and the nominative of the omitted verb generally pro- 
duces a disagreeable hiatus in the sense. Therefore it is generally better to 
repeat the verb in the required form. 

The winter is departing, and the wildrgeese flying northward. 
The ground was covered with forests, and the ravines hidden. 
A dollar was offered for it, but five asked. 



174 TEXT COURSE. 

I shall persuade others to take the same measures for their cure 
that I have. No man can be more wretched than I. (Supply am.) 
I never have and never will assist such a man. 
They either have or will write to us about the matter. 

Under Verbs. 

Obs. 1. — The past tense, and not the perfect parti- 
ciple, should be used to predicate, without an auxiliary, 
a past act or state. 

The perfect participle, and not the past tense, should 
be used after fo, have, and their variations. 
I done so. They done the best they could. The sun has rose. 
He run all the way. I never seen it. He has took my hat. 
I seen him when he done it. Mary has tore her book. 
I knew he had wrote it ; for it was well writ. 
The tree had fell, and its branches were broke. 
The apples were shook off by the wind. My coat is wore out. 
I might have went. Toasts were [drank ? or drunk ? ] 
He begun well. You have chose the worse. — Irving. [little. 
He had broke the ice. — Harper's Magazine. We drunk but 

Obs. 2. — What is forced upon the speaker, or what 
will simply happen to him, is better expressed by shall 
or should than by will or would. 

Will or would generally represents the act or state as something de- 
sired or wished by the subject, or as something in the power and will of 
the subject. Shall, in the first person, and will, in the second and third 
persons, simply foretell ; will, in the first person, and shall, in the second 
and third, imply determination or compulsion. Interrogative shall ap- 
peals to the will of the person addressed. 

A foreigner, having fallen into the Thames, cried out, " I will be 

drowned ; nobody shall help me." 
I was afraid I would lose my money. 
If I wished him to come, I would have to write to him. 
We will then find that this confiscation bill was impolitic ; and we 

will have to suffer for our folly, in the protraction of this war. 
Will I be allowed to occupy this seat? 
We would then be obliged to retreat. 
Isabella promised a pension to the first seaman who would discover land. 

As if he could discover it whenever he wished to do so. 
Would we hear a good sermon if we would go ? 



SENTENCES. — VERBS. 175 

I shall go home in spite of all opposition. 

I believe that all these troops shall be sent away. 

With shall, I foretell of myself; with will, of others : with will, I resolve for 
myself; with shall, for others. It is will and would that are commonly used 
incorrectly, or too much ; shall and should are seldom used improperly. 

Death was threatened to the first man who would rebel. 

The overt act was meant; therefore should, not would, is the proper word. 

Whoever will neglect his duties, will suffer the appointed punish- 
ment. 

In conditional propositions, shall or should must nearly always he used to 
express simple futurity or contingence ; for will and would, in such propositions, 
generally refer to the will of the suhject. " If I shall have been." " If you shall 
have been." " When we shall go." " Whoever shall say so." 

Obs. 3. — Do not make transitive verbs intransitive, 
by inserting a needless preposition. 

Pharaoh and his host pursued after them. 
We had just entered into the house. Follow on after us. 
His estate will not allow of such extravagance. 
If you can wait till to-morrow, I will consider of it. [stance. 

We entreat of thee to hear us. I do not recollect of such an in- 
Many talented men have deserted from the party. 

Obs. 4. — Avoid needless passive forms, and gener- 
ally the passive form of intransitive verbs. 

He is possessed of great talents. We are agreed on this. 

My friend is arrived. He was already come. 

What is become of him ? The tumult is entirely ceased. 

The greater part of the forces were retired into winter-quarters. 

Obs. 5. — The indicative mood, in conditional 
clauses, expresses doubt in the regular time of the 
tense ; the subjunctive mood expresses doubt or mere 
supposition, and makes the tense move forward in time. 

If you be now willing, I will accept the offer. 

Though he excel her in knowledge, she excels him in behavior. 

If I was you, I would accept the offer. 

If it rains to-morrow, we shall not go. 

If the book be in my library, I will send it. 

If the book is found in my library, I will send it. 

If the book was in my library, I would send it. 

If the book were in my library, some one must have taken it. 



176 TEXT COURSE. 

Take care that the horse does not run away with you. 

Lest and that, annexed to a command, require the subjunctive mood after 
them. If, with but following it, when futurity is denoted, also requires the sub- 
junctive mood. 

Beware lest he falls. Be it ordered that the law remains unchanged. 
If he comes but by 10 o'clock, he will be in time. 



Indicative. 


Subjunctive. 


Indicative. 


Subjunctive. 


I am. 


If I be. 


He studies. 


If he study. 


I loas. 


If I were. 


She is a widow. 


If she were a widow. 


He is. 


If he be. 


If I was not there. 


If I were not there. 


He was. 


li he were. 


If he was a friend. 


If he were a friend. 



Obs. 6. — The verbs of a sentence should correspond 
in tense, and also be consistent with the other words. 

The auxiliaries do, have, may, can, must, will, and shall, generally ac- 
cord best with one another and with the present tenses ; the auxiliaries 
did, had, might, could, would, and should, generally accord best with one 
another and with the past tenses. " What Nature has denied, fools will 
pursue " (Young) ; " What Nature had denied, he would pursue." The 
foregoing is but a general principle, for there are many exceptions. 

I have bought it, and now I have sold it. 

I know the family more than twenty years. 

By the first of next month, I shall finish this book. 

I should be obliged to him, if he will grant my request. 

Ye will not come unto me, that ye might have life. 

If I lend you my horse, I should have to borrow one myself. 

If they were more numerous, they had been less orderly. 

The most glorious hero that ever desolated nations, might have 

mouldered into oblivion, did not some historian take him into 

favor. — Irving. 
When the nation would have rushed again and again to war, his 

voice has sheathed the sword in lasting peace. 

Hemarfc. — There is sometimes nice choosing between the past tense and 
the present-perfect. " Priests have always claimed great powers ; " they still do 
so. "The Druid priests claimed great powers;" they are now extinct. "I 
have often read Virgil;" I still live, and may read him again, " Dryden ad- 
mired Virgtt;" Dryden is dead. "Tennyson admires Virgil ; " Tennyson still 
lives. " Cicero has written orations ; " they still exist. " Cicero wrote poems ; " 
they no longer exist. "Many discoveries were made in the last century;" 
" Many discoveries have been made in this century." " The obituary list has 
been unusually large for October;" said in October. "The obituary list ivas 
unusually large for October;" said in November. "He has recited no lesson 
to-day;" proper. "He went away to-day;" also proper. "He has been a 
captain in the army ; " proper. " He has been formerly a captain in the army ; " 
improper, say ivas. Any word that cuts off the predicate from present time, 
requires the past tense. " And where the Atlantic rolls, wide continents have 
bloomed;" allowable, — the place is still there. "Many a man has been per- 
secuted, who was better than his persecutors ; " proper, — it means, such is the 
existing state of things, or the nature of the world. 

Obs. 7. — Present facts and unchangeable truths 
must be expressed in the present tense. 



SENTENCES. — VERBS. 177 

Our teacher told us that the air had weight. 

He told me where the church was. (An existing church was meant.) 

Is not that dear ? — I should think it was. 

What did you say his name was ? 

What did you say was the capital of Florida ? 

He seemed hardly to know that two and two made four. 

No one suspected that he was a foreigner. 

Plato maintained that God was the soul of the universe. 

"To-morrow will be Saturday;" correct. "To-morrow is Saturday;" al- 
lowable. See last Obs. ; see also p. 148. 

Obs. 8. — The perfect infinitive denotes something 
as past at the time referred to ; and the present infini- 
tive, as present or future. 

I intended to have written to him. I intended to have said less. 
It was your duty to have arrested him. 
I expected to have heard from him yesterday. 
I hoped to have met several of my friends there. 
He is supposed to be born about a thousand years ago. 
They were not able, as individuals, to have influenced the twentieth 

part of the population. — Jefferson. 

It was still in his power to have refused. — Dryden. 

Hemark. —There are sometimes nice shades of meaning expressed "by the 
infinitives. " He was to go yesterday ; " perhaps he did go. " He was to have 
gone yesterday; " but he did not go. " I should like to go ;" it is yet possible 
to go. " I should like to have gone ; " it is now too late to go. Both the fore- 
going examples denote a present feeling. " I should have liked | to go ; " ray view 
of a past state of things. fe * I should have liked \ to have gone ; " an expression 
seldom needed, though it is not absurd. Both the foregoing examples denote a 
probable past feeling. People often say, however, " I should have liked \ to have 
been there," when they mean, " I should like \ to have been there." " I think I 
shall not go," is direct; " I do not think I shall go," is indirect. The first ex- 
pression is exact ; but the latter is also allowable. 

Obs. 9. — To, the sign of the infinitive, is omitted 
after auxiliaries, also after the active voice of bid, 
make, need, hear, \ let, see, feel, and dare; and it should 
not be used alone for the entire infinitive. 

We made her to believe it. 

If I bid you to study, dare you to be idle. 

To so I could not. You need not to have staid. 

Make me to understand the way of thy precepts. 

To is also omitted after let in the passive voice ; sometimes after have, help, 
please, find, and equivalents of see; and sometimes after a conjunction, or in 
colloquial expressions, — as, [It is] " Better [to] lose than [to] be disgraced." 
12 



178 TEXT COURSE. 

We ought not speak evil of others, unless it is necessary. 

Correct also these sentences by means of Obs. 9; but say, — " is omitted only 
after auxiliaries, and after the active voice of bid,'''' etc. 

It is better live on a little than outlive one's income, [dertaking. 

This old miser was never seen give a cent to any charitable un- 

Please excuse my son for absence yesterday. 

Allowable in the familiar style ; though it is generally better to insert to. 

I can not go, but I want to. I have not subscribed, nor do I in- 
tend to. I could sell out, but I do not wish to. 

Allowable in the most colloquial style ; though it is generally inelegant to let 
a sentence end with a word so insignificant. Supply go and subscribe. 

This must be my excuse for seeing a letter which neither inclina- 
tion nor time prompted me to. — Washington. 

Obs. 10. — It is generally improper to use different 
forms of the verb in the same construction. 
Does he not behave well, and gets his lessons well ? 
Did you not borrow it, and promised to return it soon ? 
If these remedies be applied, and the patient improves not, the 

case may be considered hopeless. 
To profess regard, and acting differently, discovers a base mind. 
Spelling is easier than to parse or cipher. 
To say he is relieved, is the same as saying he is dismissed. 

Obs. 11. — Avoid the needless use of complex par- 
ticiples in stead of simple participles ; and never use a 
complex participle as a part of a finite verb, unless it 
is absolutely necessary to use it. 

Such a poem is worth being committed to memory, {committing) 
Whatever is worth being done, is worth being done well. 
Dram-shops are now being closed on Sundays. (Omit being.) 
The report is being circulated everywhere. 
Wheat is now being sold for a dollar a bushel. — is selling — 
The books are being printed. The new church is being built. 

Memnrlc* — When the ordinary passive verb would denote completion, and 
the subject could not be considered the doer, the simple present participle can 
be used to express the progressive passive sense of the verb ; as, " Our chains 
are forging" (Wirt); u The fortress was building" (Everett). But in 
other cases, the complex present passive participle is sometimes used : as, 
" Your friend is being buried " (Magazine) ; " The seats were being arranged 
as we entered" (Newspaper). These uncouth passives can be used only in the 
present and the past indicative; for elsewhere they die of sheer monstrosity 1 
Our language has always been defective in regard to this progressive passive 
element; and at one time there was a strong tendency to adopt the preposition a 
and the participial noun, to express it; as, " Peter always liked to be by when 
money was a paying or receiving " (Swift), i.e., was " being paid or received.'* 



SENTENCES. — VERBS. 179 

Obs. 12. — Avoid the ambiguous or clumsy use of 
participles in place of infinitives, clauses, or ordinary 
nouns. 

1. A participial noun is seldom the most appropriate expression, 
when it does not follow a preposition. 2. A participial noun is seldom 
the most appropriate expression, when it is much encumbered with 
modifiers. 

Cyrus did not wait for the Babylonians coming to attack him. — 
My being sick was the cause of my being absent. [Rollin. 

What is the reason of you not having gone to school to-day? 

Say, Why have you not, etc. 
Going to law is giving the matter in dispute to the lawyers, [lie. 
Compromising conflicting opinions will ever be necessary in a repub- 
lic failed reciting his lesson. No one likes being in debt. 
Her lameness was caused by a horse's running away with her. 

See Kerl's Comprehensive Grammar, pp. 235 and 159. 
Such will ever be the consequences of youth associating with 

vicious companions. — when young persons — 
Since these objects are stripped of their importance, we wonder at 

their ever having been the cause of hatred and bloodshed. 
One of them's falling into a ditch was an accident. — Greenleaf. 
The fact of he being a partner — of him being a partner — gave 

credit to the firm. 

Obs. 13. — A participial noun generally requires an 
article before it, and of after it, or else the omission 
of both the article and the preposition. 

Keeping of one day in seven as a day of rest, is required by the 

By the exercising our judgment, it is improved. [Bible. 

This is a betraying the trust reposed in him. 

A wise man will avoid the showing any excellence in trifles. 

A wise man will avoid showing of any excellence in trifles. 

Great benefit may be derived from reading of good books. 

There is sometimes a difference in sense; as, " He expressed his pleasure in 
hearing the philosopher." He heard. " He expressed his pleasure in the hear- 
ing of the philosopher." The philosopher heard. — In the use of a few verbs, 
when the antecedent term denotes the doer, both the and of should be omitted ; 
when the subsequent term denotes the doer, the and of should be used. 

Remark. — Some grammarians condemn altogether the construction of 
participial nouns with the possessive case; but the constant practice of our best 
writers is in favor of retaining this form of expression. Besides, the construction 
is sometimes absolutely needed to give the right meaning; and it is frequently a 
convenience, especially to poets. 



180 TEXT COURSE. 

ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, CONJUNCTIONS, 
AND INTERJECTIONS. 

An Adverb is a word used to modify the meaning 
of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 

Adverbs express, — 

1. Manner. So, thus, how, well, ill, fast, like, othemvise, slowly. 

2. Place. Here, there, where, yonder, hence, everywhere, away. 

3. Time. Now, ever, yet, always, when, sometimes, seldom. 

4. Degree. More, most, less, least, so, very, too. 

5. Number. Once, twice, thrice. These denote time. 

6. Order. First, secondly, thirdly. These denote place or time. 

7. Cause. Why, wherefore, therefore, consequently, accordingly. 

8. Doubt. Perhaps, probably, perchance, may -be. 

9. Negation. Not, nay, no, nowise, by no means. 

10. Affirmation. Yes, yea, surely, indeed, amen t to be sure. 

11. Quantity or Extent. Much, little, generally, chiefly, only, even, merely. 

12. Position, in syntax. There. " There was no one there." 
Adverbs are usually divided intone general classes. Manner, place, 

time, and degree comprise four of these classes ; and the remaining words 
are called modal adverbs, because they show how the statement is made 
or regarded. Most adverbs are formed from adjectives by annexing ly ; 
and these are generally adverbs of manner or quality, or they answer 
to the question How ? Adverbs of place answer to Where ? Whence ? 
Whither ? and hence imply position or direction. Adverbs of time an- 
swer to When ? How long ? How often ? How soon 1 or How long ago ? 
and hence they denote present time, future time, past time, relative time, 
duration, or repetition. An adverb may denote manner, when it relates 
to a verb ; but degree, when it relates to an adjective or adverb : as, 
" How does he read ? " manner. " How large is he 1 " degree. Some 
adverbs are interrogative, or help to ask questions. 

Most adverbs have their equivalent phrases : here = in this place ; 
there = in that place ; thence = from that place ; now = at the present 
time = at present ; thus = in this way ; pleasantly = in a pleasant man- 
ner ; then = at that time; vainly = in vain. " Vainly but well that 
chief had fought." 

An Adverbial Phrase is an idiomatic phrase used as an 

adverb ; as, by and by, in vain, at least, not at all, long ago. 

It would be better to call adverbial phrases simply adverbs, in order to avoid 
the ambiguous and excessive use of adverbial. Adverbial phrases naturally 
lead to prepositions, and conjunctive adverbs to conjunctions > hence we have 
presented all these parts of speech under one general head. 



SENTENCES. — ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, ETC. 181 

A Conjunctive Adverb is one that gives an adverbial 
meaning to a clause or phrase, and joins it to some 
other word or part of the sentence. 

Ex. — " Go when I go." " Go where I go." " Go as I go." Here 
it is evident that the dependent clause varies in meaning according to 
the adverb, and that the clause is but an attachment to the leading verb. 
A conjunctive adverb shows merely whether its clause is designed to 
express time, place, manner, or identity ; and it is sometimes essentially 
a preposition or a subordinate conjunction. A conjunctive adverb gen- 
erally supplies the place of two phrases ; as, " I stood where he is stand- 
ing " = I stood in the place \ in which he is standing. Hence, conjunctive 
adverbs are closely allied to relative pronouns; and, strictly speaking, a 
conjunctive adverb belongs to the verb in its own clause, and joins this 
clause, as a modifier, to some other word or part of the sentence. 

A clause beginning with a conjunctive adverb is 
used not only as an adverb, but sometimes as an ad- 
jective or a noun. 

Ex. — " Remain where you are ; " adv. " The grave where our hero 
was buried ; " adj., — what grave ? "I know where he lives ; " noun, — 
know what ? 

Most adverbs are derived from adjectives, by annexing ly ; but 

sometimes the same word or form can be used either as an adjective 

or as an adverb. 

Ex. — Slow, sloiohj ; careful, carefully. No, better, best, more, most, less, 
least, early, hard, long, ill, well, like, very, yonder, and many other words, can 
be used either as adjectives or as adverbs. It is sometimes extremely hard 
to decide whether such a word is an adjective or an adverb. If the word 
expresses quality rather than manner, time, or place ; if the verb merely 
shows how the quality is acquired or made known ; or if the verb be or be- 
come can be substituted for the verb that is used, — then the doubtful word 
is rather an adjective than adverb. " The lights burn blue ; " " The shut- 
ters were painted green ;" "The apples boiled soft;" "The wine tastes 
sour;" adj. 

Changes. 

Adverbs are compared like adjectives ; except that a 
smaller number can be compared, and that these are 
more commonly compared by more and most. 

Ex. — Soon, sooner, soonest; early, earlier, earliest; wisely, more 
wisely, most wisely; well, better, best ; little, less, least. 

Relations. 

An Adverb may relate to, — 

1. A Verb. " She sings well" Sings how ? 



182 TEXT COURSE. 

2. An Adjective. " Very deep." How deep 1 

3. Another Adverb. " To run very fast." How fast % 

4. A Phrase. " Even from the tomb the voice of nature cries." 

5. A Clause. H Even as a miser counts his gold, 

Those hours the ancient time-piece told." 
Here the first even relates to from the tomb, which relates to cries, showing 
whence ; and the second even emphasizes the adverbial clause after it, which 
modifies told by showing how. A phrase or a clause sometimes has the meaning 
of an adjective or an adverb; and therefore an adverb can modify such a phrase 
or clause. It may indeed seem strange that adverbs modify so many different 
words; but all these denote attributes, and adverbs simply modify attributes. 
Even in the sentence, " He is almost a man," almost relates to the predicate is a 
man rather than merely to either is or man. 

Aii Adverb may be modified, — 

1. By another Adverb. " I went much farther." [professions' 9 

2. By a Prepositional Phrase. " He has acted inconsistently with his 

3. By an Infinitive Expression. " He writes too seldom to make an 

4. By a Clause. " He went farther than I can go." [impression." 
The general syntax of adverbs may be summed up in the following Rule and Notes. 

Rule XII. — An adverb belongs to the word, phrase, 
or clause, to which it relates. 

This Rule may also be applied to conjunctive adverbs ; but when such a con- 
junctive or adjunctive adverb as whereby or whereof occurs, it should first be 
referred to the verb in its own clause, according to Rule XII. ; and then to the 
other word to which it relates, according to Rule XIV. 

Note VI. — A few of the most specific adverbs can relate to any 

part of a sentence. 

This Note will reach such troublesome words as only, too, chiefly, also, not y 
even, etc., when their meaning evidently bears on nouns and pronouns; also 
such words as below, above, around, when they relate to nouns, and have no 
objects, can be referred to this Note. 

Note VII. — An adverbial element is sometimes used independ- 
ently, or has only the general syntax of the clause or statement 
which it represents. 

Such words as yes, no, amen, must generally be referred to this Note ; some- 
times well, ivhy, and kindred expressions : also those participial and infinitive 
phrases which are usually called independent, as generally speaking, " but to 
proceed, 11 etc., may be referred to this Note ; for they are likewise modal, or ex- 
press a similar kind of shading. Sometimes an adverbial element evidently 
relates to an entire statement rather than to any particular word in it. 

Punctuation. — An adverbial clause that is placed before its 
principal clause, or considerably removed from the word on which 
it depends, is generally set off by the comma. An adverb or 
adverbial expression that is unusually parenthetic or emphatic, or 
that abruptly breaks the connection between other words, is gen- 
erally set off by the comma. 

Ex. — " When he returns, send him to mc." "I will do the work my- 
self, if that will please you" " He is, undoubtedly, a man of great ability." 
For additional illustrations and exercises, use the sentences on pp. 191-193 
and 197-200. 



SENTENCES. — ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, ETC. 183 

A Preposition is a word used to show the relation 
of a noun or pronoun to some other word. 

I find that the majority of teachers like this definition best; but it is a bad 
definition, for it will apply just as well to transitive verbs. Perhaps a better 
definition would be this : A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pro- 
noun to make with it an adjective or an adverb. It would probably be a benefit 
to the science of grammar to reject the terms prepositions, conj unctions, and 
interjections, and adopt in their stead adjunctives, conjunctives, and emotives. 
Under adjunctives should then be included conjunctive adverbs and subordinate 
conjunctions, and the prepositions should be distinguished as transitive adjunc- 
tives. 

Prepositions generally denote, — 

1. Place. " The apples hang yet on the tree." 

2. Time. " Let us start in the morning." 

3. Manner* " The trees waved with a light and easy emotion." 

4. Means* " I caught the fish with a net." 

5. Cause. " The crops have been ruined by the drought" 

6. Purpose. " Quills were then used for writing." 

7. Kind* " The tiger of Bengal is the largest." 

Some prepositions are simple words ; as, to, in, on, up. 
Some prepositions are compound words ; as, into, upon. 
Some prepositions are phrases ; as, according to, as to. 

A Prepositional Phrase is a preposition with its ob- 
ject, or with the words required after it to complete 
the sense. 

Ex. — " The wind swept in waves, \ over the bristling barley." 

A prepositional phrase can modify or be modified 
like an adverb or an adjective. 

The modified term, which commonly precedes the adjunct, is called 
the antecedent term ; and the governed substantive is called the subsequent 
term. 

A prepositional phrase may be, — 

1. Simple, in its preposition. " He came from the city." 

2. Complex, in its preposition. " The sea withdrew/row off the land." 

3. Compound, in its preposition. " He walked up and down the hall." 

4. Elliptical, in its preposition. " Give me the book," i.e., to me. 

Me, as here used, is an abridged adjunct, or a word representing a preposi- 
tional phrase. 

1. Simple, in its object. " The forest was tinged with light." 

2. Complex, in its object. " The forest glowed with the light of the sun." 

3. Compound, in its object. " Woods between the house and the river" 

4. Elliptical, in its object. " To try in vain," i.e., in a vain manner. 



184 TEXT COURSE. 

1. Inverted. " The rattling crags among," i.e., among the rattling crags. 

2. Detached and removed, from its antecedent. "In action he is 

bold " = He is bold in action. " The stars, by night, in beauty shine." 
A preposition that has no object, is generally an adverb ; as, " He turned 
round.''' Genuine complex prepositions occur but seldom; for the entire 
prepositional phrase, after the first preposition, is rather a noun. In propor- 
tion as an attributive expression becomes a noun, the idea which it denotes 
becomes self-existent; and hence when a prepositional, participial, or infini- 
tive phrase becomes a noun, there is generally no antecedent term or subject 
to which it refers. This is a nice point of syntax, which will serve as a key 
to many troublesome expressions. A few words — such as like, worth, op- 
posite — have essentially absorbed the meaning of the preposition; so that 
it would not be improper to call them prepositional adverbs or adjectives, gov- 
erning the object. Prepositional phrases supply the deficiency of adverbs 
and adjectives. Indeed, the prepositions are the Argus-eyes of language; 
for in every way in which a thing can not be looked at by means of an ad- 
jective or an adverb, it can be looked at by means of a preposition. 
The following Rule should be applied in parsing prepositions. 

Eule XIII — A preposition shows the relation of an 
object to some other word on which the adjunct de- 
pends. 

Punctuation. — - A prepositional phrase that is unusually paren- 
thetic or emphatic, interruptive or remote, is generally set off by 
the comma. 

List of Prepositions. 

Learn the List, and tell between what words each preposition shows the relation. 

A. " We went a fishing." " This set people a thinking." — Swift. 

Aboard. " To go or be aboard a ship." 

About. " To run about the house." " To dine about noon." 

Above. " The stars above us." " To be above meanness." 

Across. " A tree is lying across the road." 

After. " They started after dinner." 

Against. " We rowed against the stream." 

Along. " The cloud is gilded along the border." 

Amid, amidst. " The rogues escaped amidst the confusion." 

Among, amongst. " Flowers perish among weeds." 

Around, round. " The ring around his finger." " To sail round the 

At. " She lives at home." " The sun sets at six o'clock." [world." 

Athwart. " Why advance thy miscreated front athwart my way? " 

Before. " The tree before the house." " To rise before day." 

Behind. " The squirrel hid behind the tree." 

Below. " The James River is very crooked below Richmond." 

Beneath. " The chasm beneath us." " He is beneath contempt." 

Beside, besides. " A large sycamore grew beside the river." 

Between. " The river flows between two hills." 



SENTENCES. — ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, ETC. 185 

Betwixt. " He was crushed to death betwixt two cars." 
Beyond. " The life beyond the grave is a mystery." 
But. " Whence all but him had fled." 
By. " A lily by sl brook." " Demolished by soldiers." 
Concerning. " He spoke concerning virtue." 
Down. " The boat went down the river." 
During. " He remained abroad during the war." 
Ere. " He came ere noon." 

Except, excepting. " All except him were set free." 
For. " To sell for money." " A collection for the poor." 
From. " A branch from the tree." " To judge from the description." 
In. "A pond in a meadow." " To play in the afternoon." 
Into. " To step into a carriage, and then ride in it." 
Notwithstanding. " He succeeded, notwithstanding the opposition." 
Of. " The house of a friend." " To die of a disease." 
Off. " Juan Fernandez lies off the coast of Chili." 
On. " The picture on the wall." " To start on Tuesday." 
Over. " The bridge over the river." " To rule over a nation." 
Past. " They drove past the house." 

Respecting. " Respecting his conduct, there is but one opinion." 
Save. " All save him remained." 
Since. " He has not been here since last Christmas." 
Till, until. " He will remain here till next Christmas." 
To, unto. " To go to the river." " Verily, I say unto you." 
Toward, towards. " He came towards me." 
Through. " To travel through woods and swamps." 
Throughout. " There was commotion throughout the whole land." 
"Under. "■ The earth under our feet." " To be under age." 
Underneath. " Underneath this sable hearse lies the subject of all 
Up. " He climbed up the tree." [verse." 

Upon. " The people stood upon the house-tops." 

With. " Girls with sparkling eyes." " Meadows enameled with flowers." 
Within. " The war will end within the next six months." 
Without. "A purse without money." " To live without company." 
According to. " It was done according to law." 
Contrary to. " He has acted contrary to orders." 
As to. " As to your case, nothing was said." 

From out. " From out thy slime the monsters of the deep are made." 
Instead of. " This instead of that." Better, in stead of as " in place 
of* " in lieu of" " in my stead" " but this in stead" Stead is a noun. 
Out of. " Drawn out of a well." "A piano out of tune." 

To the foregoing prepositions may be added the following, which are 
less common : Abaft, adown, afore, aloft, alongside, aloof, aneath, aslant, 



186 TEXT COURSE. 

atween, atwixt, bating, despite, despite of, inside, mauger, minus, outside, 
pending, per, plus, sans, saving, than, thorough, touching, versus, via, withal, 
withinside; aboard of, as for, along with, from among, from before, from be- 
twixt, from off, from under, off of over against, round about, but for. 

. o 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, 
phrases, clauses, or sentences. 
Conjunctions generally denote, — 

1. Addition. And, as well as, besides, also, furthermore. 

2. Contrariety. But, yet, still, however, except, notwithstanding. 

3. Alternation. Or, nor, either, neither, whether, else. 

4. Comparison. Than, as. 

5. Cause. Because, for, since, as, whereas, then. 

6. Condition. If, unless, lest, except, provided. 

7. Concession. Though, although, what though, even if, albeit. 

8. Inference. Hence, consequently, then, so that. 

9. Purpose or Statement. That, so that, in order that, so as. 

Many of the conjunctions have different meanings ; so that it is generally best 
to infer the meaning from the sentence in which the word is used. 

In syntax, conjunctions are divided into two great classes : — 

1. Co-ordinate. And, but, or, nor, yet, nevertheless. 

2. Subordinate. That, than, as, if, because, though. 
Clauses connected by co-ordinate conjunctions are termed co- 
ordinate ; and clauses attached to others by subordinate conjunc- 
tions are termed subordinate or dependent. 

A Correlative Conjunction or Connective is one of a 

separated pair that connect the same parts. 

Ex. — " Neither a borrower nor a lender be." 

Neither is a correlative conjunction answering or relating to nor, and helping 
it to connect the words borroiver and lender. The two connectives give greater 
completeness to the connection, by infolding the terms: while one connective 
would appear as a mere tie. It is sometimes probably best to say that the subor- 
dinate word is an auxiliary connective because it helps to join two words, 
phrases, or clauses, by giving emphasis or greater completeness to the connec- 
tion. Sometimes the connectives, as so and as, or rather and than, stand next 
to each other; but they still belong to different clauses or phrases. 

Sometimes the conjunction is omitted ; and sometimes it is 

strengthened by an additional word or by a correlative. 

Ex. — "'Twas certain [that] he could write, and cipher too." See 
neither, above. 

Most conjunctions are emigrants from other parts of speech : as, both, 
either, that, adj.; then, yet, as, adv.; except, provided, if( probably from give), 
verbs. Conjunctions express, like prepositions, a variety of relations be- 
tween connected parts ; but they do not, like prepositions, govern substan- 
tives in the objective case. The following Bule comprises the general syntax 
of conjunctions. 



SENTENCES. — ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, ETC. 187 

Rule XIV. — Conjunctions connect words, phrases, 
clauses, or sentences. 

This Rule is the same as the definition, — an imperfection that can not be 
easily avoided, for a satisfactory definition can not well be based on any thing 
but the syntax. 

Words or phrases, connected by conjunctions, are generally in the 
same construction. In the sentence, " Mary, Jane, and Alice went into 
the garden, and brought some large, ripe, and juicy peaches," the con- 
nected nouns are nominatives to the same verb, the connected verbs or 
predicates have the same subject, and the connected adjectives qualify 
the same noun. Usually, two words, two phrases, or two clauses are 
connected ; but as or than sometimes joins a word or phrase to a clause, 
in stead of connecting two clauses. 

Punctuation. — Co-ordinate clauses, when closely connected, are 
separated by the comma; when less closely connected, by the 
semicolon; and sometimes even by the colon. Co-ordinate 
phrases, that produce the distinct impression of clauses, are like- 
wise separated, or set off; usually by the comma. Subordinate 
clauses are nouns, adjectives, or adverbs, and are punctuated ac- 
cordingly. 

For illustrations, examine the sentences which I have written from p. 180. 

List of Conjunctions. 

Learn the List, and show what terms are connected by each conjunction. 
And, copulative. " The winds and the waves are absent there." 
As, causal or comparative. "As you ventured, be content." " You did 
As well as, copulative. " He, as well as I, was deceived." [as well as I." 
Because, causal. " Success is difficult, because many strive." 
But, adversative. " Wide will wear, but narrow will tear." 
Except, restrictive or conditional. " He is sane, except when he talks 

of politics." "Except a man be born again, he can not enter the 

kingdom of heaven." 
For, causal. " Rise, for it is day." 

Furthermore, copulative. It sometimes begins a paragraph. 
If, conditional. " If the advice is good, take it." 
Lest, cautionary or causal. " Touch it not, lest ye die." 
Notwithstanding, adversative or concessive. 
Moreover, copulative. It sometimes begins a paragraph. 
Nor, disjunctive. " He said nothing more, nor did I." 
Or, disjunctive. " We must educate, or we must perish." 
Provided, conditional, " I will go, provided you go." 



188 TEXT COURSE. 

Since, causal " Since you have come, I will go." 

Still, adversative. " He has often failed, still he strives." 

Than, comparative. " Performance is better than promising." 

That, final. " He studies, that he may learn." For what end 1 

That, demonstrative. That, in this sense, is a kind of pronoun, with 
which the rest of the clause is put in apposition ; or it forms a kind of handle 
to the clause, by pointing out a group of words that must be referred as a 
whole to something else. " That | the war is a calamity, is admitted." " It 
is admitted t h a 1 1 the war is a calamity." " We all know that j the war 
is a calamity." 

Then, illative. " The cotton is yours % then defend it." 

Though, although, sometimes what though ; concessive. m 

Unless, conditional or adversative. " Unless you study, you will not 

learn." " Kemain, unless you must go ; " i.e., but not, if. 

Whether, indefinite or conditional. " I will see whether/* etc. 

Whereas, causal or adversative. " Whereas it does appear," etc. 

Yet, adversative or reservative. " All dread death, yet few are pious." 

Correlatives. 

Both — and. " It is both mine and yours." 

Either — or. " It is either mine or yours." 

Neither — nor. " It is neither mine nor yours." 

Whether — or. " I know not whether it is mine or yours." 

Though, although — yet, nevertheless. " T hough deep, yet clear." 

If — then. "If you have no confidence, then do not venture." 

As — as; equality. " Time is as precious as gold." 

As — so; equality. "As the one dies, so dies the other." 

So — as; consequence. " It is so plain as to require no explanation." 

So — that; consequence. " The road was so muddy that we returned." 

Not only — but also. " He is not only bold, but he is also cautious." 

Or — or ; sometimes used by poets in stead of either — or. 

Nor — nor ; sometimes used by poets in stead of neither — nor. 

To these correlatives may be added such — as, same — as, such — that, not 
— nor, other — than, rather — than, else — than, the comparative degree fol- 
lowed by than, the — the followed each by the comparative degree, and a few 
similar expressions. Correlative connectives are not always conjunctions. 
The antecedent correlative is frequently an adverb or an adjective. It should 
be first parsed as the part of speech to which it belongs; and then its con- 
junctive character should be stated, with the Kule for conjunctions. 

To the conjunctions already given may be added as if, even if, even 
though, except that, provided that, save, saving that, seeing that, inasmuch as, 
forasmuch as, so that, in order that, so as, on the contrary, on the other hand, 
the moment that, etc. Some of these may be more appropriately called con- 
nective phrases. Again, also, however, now, nay, even, further, besides, there- 
fore, wherefore, namely, nevertheless, otherwise, likewise, so, thus, else, accord- 
ingly, consequently, and a few other such words, though originally adverbs, 
may be considered conjunctions when they stand near the beginning of a 
clause or sentence, and serve to introduce it. Most of these words have ac- 
quired their conjunctive sense by ellipsis. 



SENTENCES. — ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, ETC. 189 

Aii Interjection is an independent word, used ab- 
ruptly to express emotion. 
There are interjections, — 

1. Of Earnestness in Address. — ! 

2. Of Surprise, Wonder, or Horror. — Hah ! ha ! what ! h'm ! 
heigh ! indeed ! hey-day ! la ! whew ! zounds ! eh ! ah ! oh ! hoity-toity ! 

3. Of Sorrow or Pity. — Oh ! alas ! ah ! alack ! welladay ! 

4. Of Joy, Exultation, or Approbation. — Aha ! ah! oh! hey! 
eh ! eigh ! huzza ! hurrah ! good ! bravo ! 

5. Of Contempt or Aversion. — Pshaw ! pish ! tut ! tush ! poh ! 
fie ! bah ! humph ! faugh ! whew ! off! begone ! avaunt ! 

6. Of Attention or Calling. — Ho ! lo ! behold ! look ! see ! hark ! 
la ! heigh-ho ! soho ! hollo ! halloo ! hoy ! whoh ! 'st ! 

7. Of Silence. — Hush ! hist ! whist ! 'st ! aw ! mum ! 

8. Of Interrogating. — Eh ? hem, or h'm ? (The opposite of the 

9. Of Detection. — Aha ! oho ! ay-ay ! [preceding class.) 

10. Of Laughter. — Ha, ha, ha ! he, he, he ! 

11. Of Saluting or Parting. — Welcome ! hail ! all-hail ! adieu ! 
good-by ! and perhaps good-day ! good-morning! etc. 

12. Of Imitation. — Bah ! tuwhit-to-hoo ! slap-dash ! ri fol de rol ! 

Almost any word, when abruptly uttered to express chiefly emotion, may 
become an interjection; as, strange I behold! why ! fiddlesticks ! But when 
omitted words are very obvious, they should rather be supplied; as, "Pa- 
tience, good lady! comfort, gentle Constance! " === Have patience, good lady! 
receive comfort,* gentle' Constance ! A noun or pronoun, after an interjection, 
is independent, or else its case depends on some word understood ; as, " 
ilioul" (Independent.) "Ah me! " = Ah! pity me; or, Ah! what has 
happened to me ! or, Ah ! wo is to me ! or, Ah ! it grieves me. 

Rule XV. — An interjection has no grammatical 
connection with other words. 

Punctuation. — An exclamation-point is usually placed after an 
interjection or after its phrase ; sometimes only a comma. 



If a man cultivates the earth, he may be styled a farmer ; if 
the same man should engage in the business of buying and selling 
goods, a merchant; if in preaching the gospel, a preacher: even so 
the same word, according to its use, is sometimes one part of 
speech, and sometimes another. 

Ex. — " A black horse ; " "To black boots ; " " Black is a color." 

Here the first black is an adjective ; the second, a verb ; and the third, a nonn. 

It is sometimes difficult to determine whether a given word should he con- 
sidered an adverb, a preposition, or a conjunction. The chief characteristic of 
adverbs is, to modify ; of conjunctions, to connect ; and of prepositions, to gov- 
ern substantives in the objective case. It is generally not so much a matter of 



190 TEXT COURSE. 

importance to know precisely to what class a given word should be referred, as 
to understand clearly the meaning and force of the word in the sentence. 

Questions. — What is an Adverb I What do adverbs express ? What is 
a conjunctive adverb? From what are most adverbs derived, and how? How 
are adverbs compared? To what may an adverb relate? — by what may it be 
modified ? What is the Rule for adverbs ? What Notes are given ? How are 
adverbial expressions punctuated ? What is a Preposition 1 What do prepo- 
sitions denote ? What is a prepositional phrase ? What is its syntax ? What 
is said of its form and position ? What is the Rule for prepositions ? How are 
prepositional phrases punctuated? Repeat the list of prepositions. What is a 
Conjunction? What do conjunctions denote? Into what two great classes 
are they divided ? What is a correlative conjunction or connective ? What is 
the Rule for conjunctions ? How are co-ordinate and subordinate elements of 
sentences punctuated ? Repeat the list of conjunctions. What is an Interjec- 
tion 1 Mention some of the principal kinds. What is the Rule for interjec- 
tions ? How are interjections punctuated? Can the same word be used as 
different parts of speech ? Give an example. 

Exercises, 

Most of the derivative adverbs are formed from adjectives* 

Form, spell, and define : — 

Fierce, -ly (from like), plain, bright, faint, strange, common, 
swift, slow, gay, bitter, sweet, harsh, wise, just, sure, certain, near, 
sudden, real, constant, everlasting, charming, surprising, subse- 
quent, separate, light, heavy (p. 71), weary, cozy, scanty, deep, 
mournful, cheerful, playful, usual, equal, principal, general, total, 
spiral, oral, chief, intense, entire, infinite, scarce, mere, concise, 
precise, complete, exact, perfect, particular, boundless, fearless, 
careless, curious, serious, wicked, ragged, crooked, outward, inward, 
night, day, week, hour, month, year, part, whole, (wholly?) in, one, 
on-, able, -My, gentle, agreeable, admirable, probable, infallible ; 
back, -ward or wards (direction), in, out, up, after, down, home, 
heaven, east, west, south, north, lee, wind, for-e; length, -wise or 
ways (manner), cross, other, like, edge, straight (manner, thence 
time). 

If able to do so, the pupil should always make a sentence in which the word 
is properly used; as, Fiercely, in a fierce manner. " He looked fiercely at the 
intruder." 

So learn the following words, that, when one of a set is given, you can give 
the entire set : — 

Well, better, best; badly or ill, worse, worst ; much, more, most ; 
little, less, least; far, farther, farthest ; forth, further, furthest ; soon, 
sooner, soonest ; long, longer, longest ; early, earlier, earliest ; freely, 
more freely, most freely ; freely, less freely, least freely ; so, more so, 
most so. 

Hither, here, hence; thither, there, thence; whither, where, 
whence ; here, there, where ; hence, thence, whence ; then, when ; 
therefore, wherefore ; hereof, thereof, whereof; hereby, thereby, 
whereby ; herein, therein, wherein ; hereto, thereto, whereto ; 
herewith, therewith, wherewith. 

The adverbs, and why ; of what hind, and to ivhat they relate: — 

Wisely, now, here, very. The horse runs swiftly. God is 



SENTENCES. — ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, ETC. 191 

everywhere. These things have always been so. Never before 
did I see her look so pale. I have been too idle heretofore ; but 
henceforth I will study more diligently. By and by, the little 
brook became more useful. He has probably been here lately. 
Where have you been ? and why did you not tell me where and 
when you were going ? You do not know him as well as I do. 
He was severely wounded just above the eye ; and his arm, too, 
was much bruised. 

The prepositions y and why ; and between what they show the relation : — 
Flowers are growing along the rivulet. I saw him, through the 
window. The bear was attacked by the dogs, and chased through 
a cane-brake, into the river. My dinner is in my basket, on the 
shelf. Beneath the oak lie acorns in abundance. The hog never 
looks up to him who threshes down the acorns. By assisting me, 
you will confer a favor on me. It happened since morning, and 
before eleven o'clock. They were rowing up the river ; but we, 
down. 

The conjunctions , what they imply, and what they connect : — 

Job was a perfect and upright man, one that feared God and 

eschewed evil. My harp is tuned to mourning ; and my pipe, to 

sounds of grief. You must study, if you would be wise. He is 

neither gifted nor educated. And the floods descended, and the 

winds blew and beat upon that house, but it fell not ; for it was 

founded upon a rock. The farther we went, the worse we fared. 

Say, Neither is a correlative conjunction that answers to nor, and assists it 
in connecting gifted and educated. Say, The correlative adverbs, the and the t 
perform also the office of a conjunction, connecting the two clauses. 

Mention the corresponding adverbs : — 

True, new, sure, good, (ivell,) glaring, studious, ardent, bad, 
patient, noble, lazy, profuse, slavish, richer, (more richly,) richest, 
plainer, severest, necessary, graphic, critic, order, grammar, history, 
arithmetic, geography. 

With vigor ; in a careless manner ; without care ; in what 
place ; from what cause ; in this place ; in that place ; at all times ; 
at the present time ; in the lowest degree ; at that time ; one time ; 
from instinct ; by the year. 

The adoerbs, prepositions, and conjunctions ; and dispose of them accord- 
ing to the appropriate Rules and Notes : — 

Anger soon dies with a wise and good man. A covetous per- 
son is always poor. Every sin brings its punishment along with 
it. It is better to keep out of a quarrel than to make it up after- 
wards. No man would venture upon sin, if he could see it from 
the beginning to the end. A man is valued as he makes himself 
valuable. As you treat your parents, so will your children treat 
you. Ceremony is the smoke of friendship. The world is undone 
by looking on things at a distance. Too much prosperity makes 
fools of most men. He is truly happy who makes others happy 



192 TEXT COURSE. 

too. The first degree of folly is, to think yourself wise ; and the 
next is, to tell others so. Extravagance is folly and wickedness ; 
for it ends, sooner or later, in debt and injustice. 

Soon is an adverb of time; and belongs to dies, according to Rule XII. 

Make one sentence of each pair of statements, by joining them, successively, 
with the words that follow : — 

1. I know. He is going, (that, when, ivhere, how) 2. He 
rides. He is sick, (if, though, because, unless) 3. Pears are 
good. Peaches are good. (than, as) 4. You sow. You shall 
reap, (as — so) 5. She is intelligent. She is amiable, (as — as, 
not only — but also, neither — nor, both — and) 

Make sentences ; and embody, in each, one or more of the following words 
or phases: — 

Gently, soon, politely, forwards, down, farther, never, so, daily, 
sometimes, eloquently, badly. 

To the river ; on the sea ; long ago ; into the city ; from the 
hill ; to the people ; on horseback ; in the new place ; through 
ignorance. 



Every predicate is a kind of adjective, for it asserts some attribute of 
the subject. Of this attribute, the central or fundamental idea is action or 
being, which is variously enlarged, or made comprehensive, not merely by 
adding substantive or adjective ideas, but also by adding adverbial ideas, or 
the circumstances of time, place, manner, degree, cause, purpose, etc., all 
of which are expressed by words, phrases, and clauses. The word ad- 
verbial is also applied, in a more extended sense, to whatever is added to the 
verb ; but we are here concerned only with the more limited meaning of the 
term. 

Words. — Express your ideas clearly. Do nothing rashly. The 
ship was driven ashore. To live temperately and honestly, is the duty of 
all. There will be no more sorrow there. They that have enough, may 
sleep soundly. Elowers are very beautiful indeed, and therefore we love 
them much. The wind blew . . . ; and it rained. . . . Days brightly 
came, and calmly went. How \ sumptuously these bowers are lighted 
up with gleams that softly come and go ! . House-spiders feed principally 
on flies. (Principally what?) Elephants are found wild, and generally 
in large troops. Well, I will send for him only. Just as we entered 
the coach, the clock struck one. Then the two partners laughed to- 
gether, pleasantly and cheerfully, as men often do when they are about 
to receive money. 

Let the pupil mention the adverb, of what kind it is, and dispose of it ac- 
cording to the proper Rule or Note. The pupil should also apply, to every point 
he finds, some rule of punctuation. 

Phrases used as Adverbs, — The phrases most commonly used 
as adverbs, are the prepositional, the infinitive, and the participial. An in- 
finitive or a participial expression, when used adverbially, has plainly the 
meaning of a dependent clause or of a prepositional phrase. 

They grew in beauty \ side by side. (How ? and where ?) The min- 
strel boy to the war has gone. The French language is spoken in every 
country in Europe. Let suitable honors be awarded to the brave defenders 



SENTENCES. — ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, ETC. 193 

of their country. The ground is white with snow. The butterfly flits 
from flower | to flower. No kind of business is free from vexation and 
trouble. The eyes of all spiders are placed on the upper part of the head, 
but in various positions. (Where? how?) On these plains the bison 
feeds no more. In the same year, a decisive battle was fought at the 
mouth of the great Kanawha, between the collected forces of the Shaw- 
nees, Mingoes, and Delawares, and a detachment of the Virginia 
militia. The murdered traveler's bones were found far down a narrow 
glen. They are gone to see the show. ( Why 1 for what purpose % ) James, 
running hastily, fell. (Why?) The boys, having recited their lessons, 
were dismissed. (When and why ?) No skiff being there, we returned. 
Ic is a story easy to be told. (Easy, in what respect?) The poor man 
finds it difficult to support his family. The remark was so simple as to 
surprise us. (So simple, in what degree?) The people are careful to 
secure their rights and privileges. On the roaring billows of time, we are 
not ingulfed, but borne aloft into the azure of eternity. 

In beauty is a prepositional phrase, used here as an adverb of manner, and 
relating to grew. 

Clauses Used as Adverbs. —Make hay while the sun shines. The 
cottage stood where the mountain-shadows fell \ when the sun ivas declining. 
The cat and the tiger crouch, that they may deceive their prey. (Why ?) 
The child reclined on its mother's bosom, as some infant blossom on its 
parent stem. (How ?) If he repent, forgive him. (On what condition 1) 
Give thanks unto the Lord, for he is good, and his mercy endureth for 
ever. I should be glad if you would stay. I felt uncertain whether it 
was best to go or stay. (As to what?) As soon as an insect becomes per- 
fected, it pushes open its cell with its head, and issues forth. Complex 
Sentence, — When a statement or clause is incorporated in another, or 
dependent on another, in the sense of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb, 
the sentence or member is complex. (See pp. 102, 103, 130.) All other 
combinations of clauses make compound sentences or members. 

While the sun shines, is an adverbial clause, of time, and modifies the predi- 
cate Make hay. That then may deceive their prey, is a conjunctive clause, used 
adverbially, and relating to crouch. (The teacher may now also show the pupil 
how to analyze such complex sentences.) 

Miscellaneous. — Upon the apple-tree, the rosy buds stand clus- 
tered, ready to burst forth in bloom. A man never knows what he can 
do, till he tries. When Mr. Pickwick drew in his head again, his coun- 
tenance was smiling and placid; and, walking quietly back into the 
office, he declared that he had now removed a great weight from his 
mind, for he felt perfectly comfortable and happy. If grammar is easy 
and elementary now, the result is gained by superficiality, by evading 
all serious difficulties, by leaving unexplained the very things most in 
need of explanation. On each side, the banks of the Medway, covered 
with cornfields and pastures, with here and there a windmill, or a dis- 
tant church, stretched away as far as the eye could see ; presenting a 
rich and varied landscape, rendered more beautiful by the changing 
shadows, which passed swiftly across it, as the thin and half-formed 
clouds skimmed away in the light of the morning sun. The river, reflect- 
ing the clear blue of the sky, glittered and sparkled as it flowed noise- 
lessly on ; and the oars of the fishermen dipped into the water with a clear 
and liquid sound, as their heavy but picturesque boats glided slowly 
down the stream. 

See p. 131, and proceed in a similar manner. 
13 



194 TEXT COURSE. 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

For Analysis, and Adverbial Elements, see pp. 152-156, 210-215. 
Adverb. — An adverb, and why ; of what kind ; whether com- 
pared, and how ; to what ft belongs ; Rule or Note. 
The trees are waving beautifully. 

Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is The 
trees; the subject-nominative is trees, which is limited by the article The. 
The predicate is are waving beautifully ; the predicate-verb is are waving, and 
it is modified by beautifully. 

Beautifully is an adverb, it modifies the meaning of a verb (are 
waving) ; it is an adverb of manner ; and it belongs to the verb are 
waving, according to Rule XII. 

Abr. — Beautifully is an adverb of manner, can be compared, and 
belongs to the verb are waving, according to Rule XII. 

Since but few adverbs can be compared, it is not necessary, in parsing ad- 
verbs, to compare them, except when the adverb happens to be in the compara- 
tive or superlative degree. 

When you are in Rome, you must do as Rome does. 

Analysis. — This is a complex declarative sentence. You must do, is the 
simple, indefinite, principal clause; you must do as Rome does, is the limited 
or entire principal clause. You is the subject; must do is the predicate-verb, 
and it is limited by as Rome does, an adverbial clause of manner. As Rome 
does,is a dependent clause; as is the connective, joining it to must do ; Rome 
is the subject; does is the predicate-verb, and as depends on it. When you 
are in Rome, is the chief dependent clause; When is the connective, which 
reters it to the entire predicate of the principal clause or statement; you is 
the subject; are is the predicate-verb, and in Rome is its adjunct, showing 
where. 

When is a conjunctive adverb of time ; and it belongs to are and 
must do, according to Rule XII. JLs is a conjunctive adverb of man- 
ner ; and it belongs to must do and does, according to Rule XII. 

j&g=»When a clause, beginning with a conjunctive adverb, is used as an 
adjective or a noun, then the conjunctive adverb must be parsed as belonging 
only to the verb in its own clause. And in most cases, the Rule for conjunctions 
can also be applied to such an adverb, after the Rule for adverbs. 

Preposition. — A preposition, and why ; between what it shows 
the relation ; Rule. 

The water flows over the dam. 

Over is a preposition, — a word used to show the relation of a noun 
or pronoun to some other word ; it here shows the relation of dam to 
flows 7 or between flows and dam, according to Rule XIII. 

Abr. — Over is a preposition, showing the relation, etc. 

Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is The 
water; water is the subject-nominative, and it is limited by The. The 
predicate is flows over the dam; flows is the predicate-verb, and it is limited 
by the prepositional phrase, over the dam; dam is limited by the, and joined 
to flows by over. 



SENTENCES. — ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, ETC. 195 

Conjunction. — A conjunction, and why; its peculiar nature ; 
what it connects ; Rule. 

The meadow produces grass and flowers. 

And is a conjunction, — a word used to connect words, phrases, 
clauses, or sentences ; copulative, it implies addition ; co-ordinate, it is 
used to connect parts of equal rank ; and it here joins Jlowers to grass, 
according to Rule XIV. : A conjunction connects words or phrases in the 
same construction. 

Abr. — And is a copulative co-ordinate conjunction; connecting 
grass and jlowers, according to Rule XIV. 

You must either buy mine or sell yours. 

Either* is a conjunction, a word, etc.; * * * it corresponds to or, 
and assists it in connecting two phrases according to Rule XIV. 

Or is a conjunction, etc ; * * * disjunctive, it disjoins the words in 
sense, notwithstanding it joins them in form; co-ordinate, it unites parts 
of equal rank ; it here corresponds to either, and connects two phrases 
according to Rule XIV. 

Interjection. — An interjection, and why; of what kind; Rule. 

Alas ! no hope for me remains. 

Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. Alas is an inde- 
pendent element, or merely an attendant element. No hope for me remains, 
is the statement. No hope is the subject; hope is the subject-nominative, no 
the modifier. For me remains is the predicate ; remains is the predicate-verb, 
for me is the adjunct. 

Alas is an interjection of grief; and it is used independently. 
Rule XV. 

Abbreviated Parsing. 

Let d stand for adverb ; cjd, for conjunctive adverb ; p, for preposi- 
tion; c, for conjunction ; crl, for correlative connective; j, for interjec- 
tion. 

Beautifully — d, of manner, pd, and belongs to are waving. Rule XIII. 
When — cjd, of time, and belongs to are and must do. Rule XIII. 
Over — p ; and it shows the relation of dam to flows. Rule XIV, 

Exercises. 

Analyze the sentences, and parse all the words : — 
Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections. 

1. The horse galloped gracefully. 2. Our roses must 
soon fade. 3. Then blue and lofty mountains successively 
appeared. 4. The child was very young. 5. He is per- 



196 TEXT COURSE. 

fectly honest. 6. My hat is almost new. 7. The horse 
ran very fast. 8. The field is not entirely planted yet. 
9. This most beautiful scenery, once so delightful, no longer 
pleases him. 10. He sailed nearly round the world. 11. 
Yes, we often think and act in vain. 12. Only this will 
ever satisfy him. 13. I found a dollar in the road. 14. In 
spring the leaves come forth. 15. The water in the Gulf 
Stream is heated in the Gulf of Mexico. 16. From virtue 
to vice the progress is gradual. 17. The river is washing 
the soil from under the tree. 18. He struggled, like a hero, 
against the evils of fortune. 19. We went from New York 
to Washington City, by railroad, in eight hours. 20. Learn- 
ing refines and elevates the mind. 21. Neither flatter nor 
despise the rich or great. 22. Death saw the floweret to 
life's desert given, plucked it from earth, and planted it in 
heaven. 23. Eagles generally go alone, but little birds go 
in flocks. 24. Ah ! few shall part where many meet. 25. 
0, young Lochinvar is come out of the West ! 26. Des- 
demonal Desdemona ! dead ? Dead ! Oh ! oh ! oh ! 

Questions, — How should an adverb be parsed ? — a conjunctive adverb ? — 
a preposition ? — a conjunction ? — an interjection ? (We shall not give any more 
questions : the teacher can easily form suitable ones, on the remainder of the 
book.) 

Words used as Different Parts of Speech. 

1. Our ivell is deep. The water ivells from the ground. 
She writes ivell. He is ivell again. 2. We may expect a 
calm after a storm. The evening was calm. 3. Stand still. 
I am still here. All seems right ; still, it is best to be care- 
ful. 4. Pleased with the sound, the king grew vain. Life's 
greatest blessing is, to have a sound mind in a sound body. 
He next tried to sound me on politics. 5. He knows enough, 
and he is rich enough. 6. Much was given, but more was 
asked. This farm is much larger ; but the other has more 
improvements, and is more valuable. 7. I think my rights 
are as good as yours, and I will do as I please about my 
own affairs. Deliver us from the nauseous repetition of as 
and so, which some so so writers, if I may call them so, are 



SENTENCES. — ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 197 

continually sounding in our ears. 8. He is poor, but honest. 
Words are but leaves. To none but me it happened. 9. 
What does he know about what should be said ? Conscience 
wakes the bitter memory of what he was. I know not what 
to say. What black despair, what horror, fills his mind ! 
What! is this the law? 10. I do not like this. Men, 
like him, are never satisfied. They fought, like heroes, 
long and well. Every creature loves its like. 11. That 
man is a senator. He is the same man that spoke last 
night. What is that to you ? that those lips had lan- 
guage ! 12. He came after me. He came soon after. He 
came after I came. 13. John is masculine ; and she is a 
pronoun, of the feminine gender. If Home is home is 
proper, then it can not be wrong to say, Is is is. 

The Child's Funeral. 

A child died in the south of Italy; and when the family went to 
bury it, they found it revived, and playing with the flowers, which, ac- 
cording to the custom of that country, had been brought to grace its 
funeral. 

This note is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of a simple 
sentence and a complex. The complex sentence, or member, has two de- 
pendent clauses, — one adverbial, and the other adjective. S = Q ; c, C, c f 
The clauses, or statements, are, — 

A child died in the south of Italy. ' 

When the family went to bury it. 

They found it revived, and pi tying with the flowers. [funeral. 

Which, according to the custom of that country, had been brought to grace its 

1. 

Fair is thy site, Sorrento, green thy shore, 

Black crags behind thee pierce the clear blue skies ; 

The sea, whose borderers ruled the world of yore, 
As clear and bluer still before thee lies. 

This stanza is a compound declarative sentence; consisting of three sim- 
ple independent clauses, an independent noun, and a complex independent 
clause. The first two clauses are rhetorically arranged; grammatically 
arranged and expressed, they would be, Thy site is fair, thy shore is green. 
Thy site is the subject of the first clause; site is the subject-nominative, and 
it is limited by thy, for this word shows what site is meant. Is fair is the 
predicate; is is the predicate-verb, and fair is its attributive adjunct, — or 
it is combined with fair, an attribute of the subject. Behind thee is an ad- 
jective prepositional phrase, belonging to crags ; before thee is an adverbial 



198 TEXT COURSE. 

prepositional phrase, belonging to lies ; and still, which is equivalent to yet, 
and therefore expresses time, is also an adverb belonging to lits. Behind 
thee could also be considered an adverbial element, belonging to pierce; and 
it is a remarkable specimen of a phrase that shows what difficulties some- 
times attend the analysis of language. S = C, X, C, C ; C, c. 

2. 
Vesuvius smokes in sight, whose fount of fire, 

Outgushing, drowned the cities on his steeps ; 
And murmuring Naples, spire overtopping spire, 

Sits on the slope beyond where Virgil sleeps. 

This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of two complex 
clauses. Wh°$e limits fount, and joins the clause to Vesuvius. Spire over- 
topping spire is an adjective absolute participial phrase, descriptive of Naples. 
Where Virgil sleeps, is a clause used as a noun, the object of beyond. 
Though nowhere printed so, it is very probable that the poet meant a comma 
after beyond; and in that case, where Virgil sleep>s would relate to sits. S = 
C, c; Cc. 

3. 

Here doth the earth, with flowers of every hue, 

Heap her green breast when April suns are bright, 

Mowers of the morning-red, or ocean-blue, 

Or like the mountain-frost of silvery white. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. The principal clause takes up 
almost the entire stanza. When April suns are bright, is the only dependent 
clause. The comma after bright should rather be a comma and dash (, — ). 
(The pupil should apply his rules of punctuation to every point he finds; or, 
rather, he should critically examine the punctuation of whatever he an- 
alyzes.) 

Currents of fragrance from the orange-tree, 
And swards of violets, breathing to and fro, 

Mingle, and [,] wandering out upon the sea, 

Refresh the idle boatman where they blow. 

This also is a complex declarative sentence, of which the principal clause 
takes up almost the entire stanza. Where they blow, is the only dependent 
clause. 

5. 

Yet even here, as under harsher climes, 

Tears for the loved and early lost are shed, [;] 

That soft air saddens with the funeral chimes, 

Those shining flowers are gathered for the dead. 

A compound sentence. S = C, c; C, C. — A semicolon, after shed, is 
absolutely required, to show that the last two lines refer to the preceding 
stanzas, and not to the first two lines of the stanza. 



SENTENCES. — ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 199 

6. 
Here once a child, a smiling [,] playful one, 

All the day long caressing and caressed, 
Died when its little tongue had just begun 

To lisp the names of those it loved the best. 

A complex declarative sentence. The dependent clause has itself a de- 
pendent clause. S = Ccc'. Whom is understood after those; and the sen- 
tence contains beautiful specimens of phrases. 

7. 
The father strove his struggling grief to quell, 

The mother wept as mothers use to weep, 
Two little sisters wearied them to tell 

When their dear Carlo would awake from sleep. 

A compound declarative sentence ; consisting of three independent 
clauses, two of which have each a dependent clause. The last dependent 
clause is used as a noun, the object of to tell. S = C, C, Cc. 

8. 
Within an inner room his couch they spread, 

His funeral couch ; with mingled grief and love, 
They laid a crown of roses on his head, 

And murmured, " Brighter is his crown above." 

9. 

They scattered round him, on the snowy sheet, 
Laburnum's strings of sunny-colored gems, 

Sad hyacinths, and violets dim and sweet, 

And orange-blossoms on their dark-green stems. 

10. 

And now the hour is come ; the priest is there ; 

Torches are lit [,] and bells are tolled ; they go, 
With solemn rites of blessing and of prayer, 

To lay the little one in earth below. 

11, 

The door is opened ; hark ! that quick glad cry ; 

Carlo has waked, has waked, and is at play ! 
The little sisters laugh and leap, and try 

To climb the bed on which the infant lay. 



200 TEXT COURSE. 

12. 

And there he sits alive, and gayly shakes 

In his full hands the blossoms red and white, 

And smiles with winking eyes, like one who wakes 

Prom long deep slumbers at the morning light. 

Bryant. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Modifiers, 

Obs. 1. — When two negatives are equivalent to an 
affirmative, only one of them should be used to ex- 
press denial. 

I will never do so no more. We didn't find nobody at home. 
Change also any word of the sentence, when it is necessary to do so. 

I don't know nothing about your affairs ; and I don't want to know. 

I never said nothing about it to nobody. 

Death never spared no one. She will never grow no taller. 

I sha'n't go, I don't think. (Change the sentence.) 
This England never did, nor never shall, 
Lie at the proud foot of a conqueror. — Shakespeare. 

Formerly, or in Old English, two negatives were frequently used to strengthen 
the negation. 

Neither you, nor nobody else, can walk ten miles in one hour. 
No banker, brewer, nor merchant wanted a partner. — Newspaper. 

When the meaning of the first negative reaches all the terms, or should be 
used ; otherwise, nor. 

Obs. 2. — Adverbs should be used to qualify verbs, 
adjectives, or other adverbs ; and adjectives, to qualify 
nouns or pronouns. 

She sews good and neat. Speak slow and distinct. 
The work is near done. I am only tolerable well. 
I never studied no grammar, but I can talk just as good as them 

that talk grammatical. I am exceeding busy. 
I was scarce sensible of the motion. You behaved very bad. 
I came there previous. He acted conformable to orders. [way. 
We ought to value our privileges higher. I can write easiest this 
Apples are more plenty than peaches. — Webster. 
We landed safely after all our misfortunes. 
Things look much more favorably this morning. 
How beautifully this whole section of country appears ! [Dryden. 
It rarely happens that a verse of monosyllables sounds harmoniously. 



FALSE SYNTAX. — MODIFIERS. 201 

Now the moonlight began to prevail over the twilight, and Emma 
felt very poetically. — A Novel. 

Hemirk. — A number of the most common words are used, without 
change of form, either as adjectives or as adverbs. (See p. 229.) Sometimes there 
are two adverbs, but different in meaning; as, " He studies hard; " " This will 
hardly do; " " To stop short," and i4 To stop shortly." When the adjective al- 
ready ends with ly, as silly , friendly , there is a strong tendency to use the same 
form also as an adverb, in order to avoid the disagreeable ending lily ; as, " She 
acted silly," not sillily; * l He received me friendly .-" or else the phrase must 
be used; as, " She was dressed in a homely manner." In poetry and in com- 
pound words, the adjective form of expression is allowed to a greater extent 
than elsewhere. 

Obs. 3. — Adjectives, adverbs, prepositional phrases, 
and other modifiers, must generally be placed as near 
as possible to the parts which they are designed to 
modify. 

The bad position of adjectives and adjuncts is improved by bringing 
them nearer to what they qualify ; and adverbs should generally be 
placed before the adjectives or adverbs which they modify, after verbs in 
the simple form, and between the auxiliary and the rest of the verb in 
the complex form. 

Sometimes there is a gradation of adjectives before a noun. When 
this is the case, the adjectives should be so» arranged that each may 
properly qualify all the remainder of the phrase which follows it ; as, 
" An old man," " A respectable old man/' " Three respectable old men." 

I bought a new pair of shoes. There is a fresh basket of eggs. 

I only recited one lesson. (Only what ?) 

He is only so when he is drunk. Some virtues are only seen in 

His visage to the view was only bare. — Dryden. [adversity. 

I shall be happy always to see my friends. 

He is considered generally honest. He is just such another man. 

There was no city where Bath stands, then. — Dickens. 

They became even grinders of knives and razors. 

They all went to the party, nearly dressed alike. 

Every man can not afford to keep a coach. — Webster. 

I came not to call the righteous, but sinners, to repentance. 

All that glitters, is not gold. All that we hear, we should not believe. 

Please to sing the three first stanzas. The two last classes have 

not recited. Rows of silk small green buttons. 

Remark. — "When a numeral and a cardinal adjective precede a noun, the 
numeral adjective is generally placed before the other; as, " The first two men," 
not " The two first men; " for there can not be two firsts. The adjectives all, 
such, many, what, both, and adjectives preceded by too, so, as, or how, usually 
precede the article. 

At that time I wished somebody would hang me a thousand times. 

A lecture on the methods of teaching geography at ten o'clock. 



202 TEXT COURSE. 

Wanted — A young man to take care of some horses, of a religious 

turn of mind. [Eastern States. 

This victory seemed to be like a resurrection from the dead, to the 
Grocers and confectioners conspired to adulterate the articles in 

which they dealt in a thousand different ways. 
There is a remarkable union in his style of harmony and ease. — 

Blair. [men. 

The solar system, space, and time. The most prudent and best 

Apparently, " solar space and time." Apparently, " most best." 

Remark. — When a sentence has many modifiers, great care should be 
taken to distribute them here and there, to the best advantage. A troublesome 
adjunct can frequently be best placed at the beginning; especially if it has only 
a sort of general reference, or relates to the entire statement rather than to any 
particular word in it ; as, " Upon the whole, we are rather pleased with the work." 

A modifier naturally refers its meaning to the nearest word that is suitable to 
receive it; and since modifiers are numerous and various, and can refer to many 
different words, it becomes one of the chief concerns of every writer to give the 
best position to the words, phrases, and clauses, which are modifiers. Am- 
biguity, obscurity, and sometimes absurdity, harshness, or feebleness, are the 
results of bad arrangement. 

Obs. 4. — It is generally improper to place an ad- 
verb between to and the rest of the infinitive. 

They were not such as tb fully answer my purpose. 
He had men enough to strongly garrison the fort. 
He knew not which to most admire. — Hakper's Magazine. 
We were to cautiously and quickly advance to the hill above. 
It is the duty of our Government to promptly enforce the neutrality 
laws. 

Obs. 5. — When a part of a sentence refers to each 

of two or more other parts, it should be suitable to each. 

Cedar is not so hard, but more durable, than oak. 

Cedar is not so hard as oa7c, but more durable. Complete the construction 
of the first part, and leave understood that of the second. 

She is fairer, but not so amiable, as her sister. [ter than the old. 
It is different and superior to the old. It is different and much bet- 
He can and ought to give more attention to his business. 
Either you or I are in the wrong. 
Christianity is the only power that ever has, ob ever will, arrest the 

downward tendency of society. 
The reward has already or will hereafter be given to him. 
We have the power of retaining, altering, and compounding those 

images which we have received, into all the varieties of picture 

and vision. — Addison. 



FALSE SYNTAX. — GENERAL RULES. 203 

GENERAL EULES. 

All the errors, in the use of language, can be re- 
duced to four heads : — 

1. Too Many Words. 

2. Too Few Words. 

3. Improper Word or Expression. 

4. Improper Arrangement of Words, 

1. Too Many Words. 
Rule I. — No needless word should be used. 

This here is my seat. That there is your place. 

Incorrect : this itself implies here ; therefore here is superfluous, and 
should be omitted. (Let the pupil reason out every example, just as in mental 
arithmetic.) 

I have got to go. You have got to stay. 

She is a poor widow woman. He died in less than two hours' time. 

You hadn't ought to do it. He hadn't ought to go. 

Had I have been there, I would have gone with them. 

Had I have known it, I could have sent yesterday. 

His two sisters were both of them well educated. 

I bought it of the bookseller, him who lives opposite. 

Such use of pronouns is allowable only in the rhetorical style. 
The neck connects the head and trunk together. 
He went away about the latter end of the week. 
You will never have another such a chance. 
There are but a few other similar places in the city. 
What is used for that and which. (Omit and.) 
It is equally as good as the other. Mine is equally as good as yours. 

The correlatives as and as themselves imply equality. See p. 188. 
"Who first discovered America ? When the world was first created, 
For his avoiding that disaster, he is indebted to you. [etc. 

In their discussing of the subject, they became angry. 
He knows the lesson, but you do not know the lesson. 
Perseverance in laudable pusuits will reward all our toils, and will 

produce effects beyond our calculation. 
This is taught by Plato ; but it is taught still better by Solomon 

than by him. Most is annexed to the end of these words. 
Our flowers are covered over. I was not able for to do it. 



204 TEXT COURSE. 

I borrowed the knife for to sharpen my pencil. 

For was formerly used before the infinitive ; but it should not be used so now. 
Where is William at ? Their situation can hardly be conceived of. 
My father presented me with a new knife. Where are you going to ? 

A very common error. — He did not present me, but the knife. Omit with. 
Mr. C. S. Bushnell, of New Haven, has presented the divinity 

school with five thousand dollars. — N. Y. Times. 

Say, " has presented five thousand dollars to the divinity school." 
The emotion is at last awakened by the accidental in stead of by 

the necessary antecedent. — Wayland. ' 

Omit the second by. " In a horizontal in stead of a perpendicular direction." 
— E. Everett. 

It is to you to whom I am indebted for this favor. 

The pronoun It needs you for its predicate-nominative; and therefore to 
should be rejected. 

It is to this last feature of the game laws, to which we intend to 

confine our notice. — Sidney Smith. 

Our debts and our sins are generally greater than we think for. 

At about what time will you come ? 

The performance was approved of by all who saw it. [not. 

From thence we sailed to Liverpool. From whence it came I know 

Hence, thence, and ivlience imply from, which therefore becomes superfluous 
when inserted before any of these words. 

Whenever he sees me, he always inquires after my health. 
He then told us how that he had always been a Union man. 

The carol they began that hour, 

How that a life was [is] but a flower. — Shakespeare. 

The carol, that a life is but a flower, etc. 

I have no doubt but that he will come. 

He never doubts but that he knows their intention. — Trexch. 

This barbarous custom, and which prevailed everywhere, the mis- 
sionaries have abolished. 

A relative pronoun is a connecting word, and therefore does not allow and 
between itself and the antecedent, except when the and is needed to join one 
relative clause to another. 

The distinguishing excellence of Virgil, and which he possessed 
above all others [other poets], is tenderness. — Blair. 

If I mistake not, I think I have seen you before. 

Her tears dropped and fell upon the face of her dying and expir- 
ing babe. A little flowing rivulet. Mr. Henry Felton, Esq. 

A name should not stand between two titles when the greater title implies 
the less; but a name can have two or more titles when one does not necessarily 
imply the other; as, Rev, Dr. Lothrop. 



FALSE SYNTAX. — GENERAL RULES. 205 

Obs. — Do not let the same word, sound, or expres- 
sion recur too frequently, nor in close proximity to 
itself. 

The fault is still worse when the word is used in different senses. 

Too much of the same sound frequently produces harshness, and is 
always so unpleasant to the ear that the word monotony has become a 
common term for whatever is disagreeable from excessive sameness. 

The subject of which I shall now treat, is not a subject of gen- 
eral interest; but no other subject is of greater importance to 
the subjects of this kingdom. 
Pronouns, auxiliary verbs, and the word so, are often convenient substitutes. 

Avarice and cunning may gain an estate, but avarice and cunning 
can not gain friends. (Substitute they.) 

A catalogue of the children of the public schools of this city has 
been published. (Substitute in.) 

My brother's wife's sister. The sister of the wife of my brother. 

The two modes of expressing possession should be so used as to relieve each 
other. See p. 162. 

I believe that he is the man that I saw. (Substitute whom.') 
One can not imagine what a monotonous being one becomes if one 
constantly remains turning one's self in the circle of one's favor- 
ite notions. A person he, etc, 

Observe that the irregularities in the declension of pronouns, give beauty to 
language. 

2. Too Pew Words. 
Rule II. — No necessary word should be emitted. 

White sheep are much more common than black. 
He does not know you better than John. (Ambiguous.) 
Lovest thou me more than these ? You suppose him younger than I. 
A squirrel can climb a tree quicker than a boy. — Webster. 
He did it for your and my friend's welfare. 
Ignorance is the mother of fear as well as admiration. 
He had fled his native land. He was expelled the college. 
What prevents us going ? What use is it to me ? 
The remark is worthy the man that made it. 
My business prevented me attending the last meeting. 
She could not refrain shedding tears. 
San Francisco is the other side the Rocky Mountains. 
Out of these modifications have sprung most complex results. 
Say, " most of the," etc.; for, otherwise, most apparently modifies complex. 



206 TEXT COURSE. 

The court of France or England was to be the umpire. 

The valley of the Amazon is perhaps as large as the Mississippi. 

Let us consider the works of nature and art, with proper attention. 

The word depends on what precedes and follows. (Supply ivhat.) 

She praises who praise her. (Object wanting ; supply those.') 

We speak that we do know. 

The privileges to which he was entitled, and had long enjoyed, 
were taken from him. (Supply ivhich and he.) 

An officer on European and on Indian service are in very different 
situations. — S. Smith. (Supply service and one.) 

Though virtue borrows no assistance from, yet it may often be ac- 
companied by, the advantages of fortune. — Blair. 

So great a separation between two prepositions or other words that govern 
the same object, always produces a disagreeable hiatus in the sense; therefore 
place the noun after the first preposition, and the corresponding pronoun after 
the second. 

He first spoke for, and then voted against, the measure. 

The freight was added to, and very much increased, my expenses. 

He is not now in the condition he was. (Supply in which.) 

The omission of a relative adjunct generally produces a disagreeable gap in 
the sense. 

Yonder is the place I saw it. This is the way it was done. 

The money has not been used for the purpose it was appropriated. 

How do you like up here ? We like right well up here. 

This is an error common in New England. Supply to live or some other words. 
Surely no man is so infatuated to wish for a different government 

from that which we have. Page 188. 

Obs. 1. — Parts that are to be emphatically dis- 
tinguished, or kept distinct in thought, should be ex- 
pressed with equal fullness. 

Neither my house nor orchard was injured. (Supply my.) 
Both the principal and interest were paid. 
Neither the principal nor interest was paid. 
The principal, as well as interest, was paid. 
Not the use, but abuse, of worldly things, is sinful. 
The hum of bees, and songs of birds, fell sweetly on the ear. 
I would rather hear the whip-poor-will than katydid. 
You must either be quiet, or must leave the room. 
God punishes the vices of parents, either in themselves or children. 
Such a relation as ought to subsist between a principal and accessory. 



FALSE SYNTAX. — GENERAL RULES. 207 

They were rich once, but are poor now. [effort. 

A man may be rich by chance, but can not be good or wise without 
He may be said to have saved the life of a citizen, and consequently 

entitled to reward. 
He is distinguished both as a teacher and scholar. 

Obs. 2. — Serial parts must generally be expressed 

with equal fullness or with uniformity. 

Such a law would be injurious to the farmer, mechanic, and the 
merchant. 

Either use the article but once, and place it before the first word; or else use 
it before each word. 

She possesses more sense, more accomplishments, and beauty, than 
the other. 

My duty, my interest, and inclinations, all urged me forward. 

He is a man of sagacity, experience, and of honesty. 

By industry, by economy, and good luck, he soon acquired a fortune. 

While the earth remaineth, seed-time and harvest, cold, heat, sum- 
mer, winter, day and night, shall not cease. 

3. Improper Word or Expression. 

Rule III. — In the use of words, great care should 
be taken to select the most appropriate. 

To lay ; to make lie, to place. To lie ; to rest in a reclining position. 
To set; to place. To sit ; to rest. To seat ; to place in a sitting posi- 
tion, to furnish with a seat. To learn; to acquire knowledge. To teach; 
to impart knowledge. To like; to be pleased with, to desire moderately. 
To love ; to feel affectionate or very kind towards. To raise ; to lift. 
To rise ; to erect one's self, to ascend. To affect ; to impress. To effect ; 
to accomplish. To elude; to escape. To illude; to deceive. To sus- 
pect ; to mistrust. To expect ; to await, to regard as something that is 
to be. Stinted; insufficiently fed, restrained. Stunted; checked in 
growth, dwarfish. Go is estimated from the starting-point ; and come, 
from the point to be reached. Less implies size or number ; fewer, num- 
ber only. Whole, the entire object; all, the entire number. Either, 
neither, or each other should be used in speaking of two only ; any one, 
no one, none, or one another, in speaking of more. But either and neither, 
when used as correlative conjunctions, can be applied to more than two. 

Into, from outside to inside; in, inside only; at, indefinitely in or 
about ; in, definitely within ; at, border, no surroundings ; in, inclosure, 
surroundings ; between or betwixt, two only ; among, three or more ; fre- 



208 TEXT COURSE. 

quently, by, the a&ent, — and with, the means or manner ; a taste of what 
is enjoyed, a taste for what we wish to enjoy ; disappointed of what is 
not obtained, disappointed in what fails to answer our expectations 
after it is obtained ; die of disease, by an instrument; compare with, for 
ascertaining merits, — to, for illustration ; attended by persons, with con- 
sequences; agree with a person, to something proposed, and upon some 
settlement of affairs ; change for by substitution, and to or into by altera- 
tion ; concur with a person, in a measure, and to an effect ; a thing con- 
sists of what it is composed of, and consists in what it is comprised in; 
conversant with men, and in things ; what corresponds with, is consistent 
with, — and what corresponds to, answers to ; defend or protect our- 
selves against, and others from ; disagree with a person, as to what is 
proposed ; usually, expert or skillful in, before an ordinary noun, — and 
at, when immediately before a participial noun ; we are familiar with 
things, and they are familiar to us ; indulge with occasionally, and in- 
dulge in habitually ; we introduce a person to another, and a person or 
thing into a place; intrude upon a person or thing, and into something 
inclosed ; we usually look for what is sought, and after what is in- 
trusted to us; prevail with, on, or upon, by persuasion, — and over qy 
against all opposition ; reconcile one friend to another, and apparent in- 
consistencies with one another; reduce under implies subjugation, and 
reduce to implies simply a change of state ; to have regard for, and to 
pay regard to ; to unite to means to join to, and frequently as an append- 
age, — to unite with means to combine with, and generally as a colleague 
or an equal ; to vest authority in a person, and to invest a person with 
authority. 

Abhorrence of; abhorrent to, from; access to; accord with; accuse 
of; adapted to ; adequate to; agreeable to; aspire to; brag of; capacity 
for ; comply with ; confide in ; conformable to, with ; congenial to, with ; 
consonant with ; contiguous to ; cured of; deficient in ; dependent on ; 
independent of; derogate from ; derogatory to; destined to; differ from, 
seldom with; difficulty in; diminish from ; diminution of; discourage 
from; discouragement to; disgusted at, with; disparagement to; dissent 
from ; in distinction from ; eager in, for, after; embark in, for ; enamored 
of, with; enter, entrance, on, upon, into; exception from, to, against; 
exclude from ; exclusive of; extracted from ; followed by ; fond of; 
fondness for; foreign to, from ; founded on, upon, sometimes in; free 
from; glad of, sometimes^; guard against; hanker after; inaccessi- 
ble to; incentive to; incorporate into, with, sometimes in; indulgent to; 
influence over, with, on ; initiate into, sometimes in ; inroad into ; inter- 
mediate between; intervene between; inured to; invested with, in; in- 
volve in; join with, to; lame of; land at; level with ; long for, after; 
made of; marry to ; intermarry with ; meddle with ; martyr for ; militate 



FALSE SYNTAX.— GENERAL RULES, 209 

against; mingle with ; mistrustful of; necessary to, for ; need of; neglect- 
ful of; object to, against; occasion for ; offend against; offensive to; 
omitted from ; overwhelmed with, by; peculiar to; penetrate 'into; per- 
tinent to ; pleasant to ; pleased with ; preferable to ; preference to, over, 
above; prejudice against; prejudicial to; preserve from ; productive of; 
profit fy/; profitable to; provide with, for, against ; pursuant to; pursu- 
ance of; refrain from ; relation to ; release from ; relieve of from ; rely 
on, upon; replete with; resemblance to, between; in or with respect to; 
in or with regard to; rise above; rid of; similar to; strip of; subtract 
from ; swerve from ; sympathize with ; sympathy for, with ; unison with ; 
weary of; worthy of ' Sick with' afflicted, where ' sick of would imply 
disgusted. Upon is to on as into is to in ; but it can often be used for 
on, and is then simply a little more forcible. 

The same preposition that follows a primitive word, naturally follows 
the derivative ; but there are many exceptions. 

Verbs He laid abed till breakfast. Lay down and rest. 

and We had laid on the ground all night. — Newspaper. 

Nouns. After laying awhile in this position, he raised up. 

We were all setting round the fire. We set up late. 

Set down a little bit. Are you going to go ? I ain't going yet. 

I didn't go to do it. I calculate to invest my money in something else. 

She is as peevish as a setting hen. The nurse sat him in a chair. 

The sun sets ; and a current may set in a certain direction : but a hen rather 
sits than sets on eggs ; and a garment sits or fits well, though it may have a good 
set. 

I love bread and butter. Can you learn me to write ? 

The business will suit any one who enjoys bad health. 

He was raised in the South. Carry the horse to water. 

Cattle and agricultural productions are raised; but a child or a family is 
reared in a certain style of life. 

I expect it rained here yesterday. The garment was neatly sewn. 

We suspect the trip will afford us great pleasure. 

All the bottom-lands along the Mississippi were overflown. 

They shall fly from the wrath to come. — flee — 

Very many rivers empty into the Mississippi. — flow — 

The thief illuded the police. He was much effected by the news. 

A verb ought to agree with its subject, in person and number. 

Say, " should agree," for ought usually implies moral obligation. 

Write for me no more, for I will certainly . . . 

If I can absent myself, I will ... to see him. 

He has made a fine crop of wheat. I am necessitated to go. 

To malce a crop is perhaps as proper an expression as to maize money ; still, 
crops are not manufactured. Why not prefer obliged or compelled to neces- 
sitated! for the latter is a long, clumsy word, almost as uncouth as necessitude. 

14 



210 TEXT COURSE. 

Four goes in thirty, seven times, and two over. 

Corrected : Four is contained seven times in thirty, with two remainder. 
Be that as it will, I can not give my consent. 

As it Willi implies certainty ; as it may, implies uncertainty. 

He throwed the ball. I seed him. He knowed better. 

Only those verbs, or forms of verbs, should be used, which are authorized by 
good present usage. 

I drawed the line. I writ the name. He shoed the horse. 
We be all of us from York State. John alit from his horse. 
He was drownded. They were attackted. That is no preventative. 
The goods were shipt yesterday. Want of money has checkt trade. 
" Dipt, stript, dropt, perplext, elapst, absorpt, linkt, distrest." 
Bather than thus be overtopt, 
Would you not wish their laurels cropt ? — Swift. 
Thou didd'st weep for him. Thou mightest return. He try'd in vain. 
Spirit of Freedom ! once on Phyle's brow thou satt'st. — Byron. 

The simpler forms, didst, might st, tried, and satst, are preferable. 
Wast thou chopping wood ? Learns he the lesson ? 

In the familiar style, grave or poetic forms of expression are not becoming. 
A drive into the country delighteth and invigorates us. 
The eve was fair, but the morn was cloudy and darksome. 
It was not taken notice of. — was not noticed. 
It was made use of for this purpose. 
She said our noise and romping must be put a stop to. 
He was found fault with, and taken hold of. — censured and seized. 
Weights and measures were now attempted to be established. 

From Carlyle. Better : " An attempt was now made to establish," etc. 
She is getting the better of her sickness. — recovering from — 
I have done written the letter. He is done gone. — already — 
Since you have made the first, you may do the rest. — make — 

It is sometimes better to repeat the verb, than to use the substitute do. 
No one ever sustained such mortifications as I have done to-day. 
I did not say, as some have done. — Bolincbroke. 
A poet can rise higher * * * than a public speaker can do. — Blair. 
She is administrator. He married a Jew. She is a good songster. 

She is a good singer ; for songster is now generally applied to birds. 
A cruel tyrant, and her name is Death. Page 83. [negligence. 
Her stupidness soon appeared. I thought she treated me with 
Pronouns Take either of the five. Each one of the dozen is in- 

and Any one of the two roads will take you to town. [ jured. 

Adjectives. Neither one of these three hats is large enough for my 
Jack and Peg called one another nicknames. — Swift. [head. 



FALSE SYNTAX. — GENERAL RULES. 211 

Mankind resemble each other most in the beginnings of society. 

Verse and prose run into one another like light and shade. — Blair. 

You may take e'er a one or ne'er a one, just as you please. 

That very point which we are now discussing, was lately decided 
in the supreme court. Page 118. [jail. 

These very men with whom you traveled yesterday, are now in 

There is a right road, and there is a wrong road, before every per- 
son : this leads to happiness ; and that, to misery. 

It all tends to show that our whole plans had been discovered. 

A proper fraction is less than one, because it expresses less parts 
than it takes to make a unit. — Colburn. 

I am willing to pay a hundred or two dollars. [part. 

We have not the least right to your protection. The least distinct 

These evils were caused by Catiline, who, if he had been punished, 
the republic would not have been exposed to such great dangers. 

Who is used here as a mere connective, or it is deprived of its chief syntax. 
But a connective that is not a conjunction, performs also the office of the part of 
speech to which it belongs. Therefore say, " the punishment of ichom would 
have prevented the republic from being exposed to dangers so great." 

He reached Charleston about the same time that we did. 

Perhaps allowable, as being an idiom ; but that, in this construction, is a 
dubious word for parsing. Say, " about the time in which we arrived there." 

At the same time that men are giving their orders, God is also 

giving his. WKde men, etc. 

He has never preached, that I have heard of. 

No man is so poor, who has not something to enjoy. 

Say, " that he has not,' 1 etc. ; for the idea of consequence predominates. See 
page 188. 

Adverbs A wicked man is not happy, be he never so pros- 

and Home is home, be it never so homely. [perous. 

Conjunctions. He is seldom or ever here. 

He said nothing farther. I can go no further. 

Further, — additional, more ; applied to quantity. Farther, — more distant; 
applied to space. 

Such cloaks were in fashion five years since. 

Ago, from present time back ; since, from some past time forward. (Diction- 
aries do not make this distinction ; but it is nevertheless well founded.) 

I saw him about five weeks since. I have not seen him .... 

Do like I did. You are not studious, like he is. — not so ... as — 

As, and not like, should be used as a conjunctive adverb, between two clauses. 

A diphthong is where two vowels are united. 

A diphthong is when two vowels are united. 

Say, " A diphthong is the union off etc.; for a diphthong is neither place 
nor time. 



212 TEXT COURSE. 

Fusion is while a solid is converted into a liquid by heat. 

He drew up a petition where he represented his grievances. 

Say, " a petition in which," etc.; for where might seem, to be a conjunctive 
adverb relating to drew. 

She is such a good woman. — so good a ivoman. 

Such expresses quality; and so, degree. 

I have seldom seen such a tall man. 

The letter was not as well written as I wished it to be. 

He is such a great man, there is no speaking to him. 

Allowable, if the meaning is, he is a great man of such a hind that it is im- 
possible to speak to him. But if degree only is meant, the phrase so great a 
man should be used. 

I will see if it rains or no. — whether . . . or not. Pag;e 188. 

Whether it can be proved or no, is not the thing. — Butler. 

Go, and see if father has come. See if that will do. 

Tell me if we are going to have but one session to-day. 

Neither our position, or the plan of attack, was known. Page 188. 

I demand neither place, pension, or any other reward. — Franklin. 

By personification, things are often treated as though they were 

hearers. 

That is, " as (they would be) if they were hearers." 

You look as though you have been sick. 

There is no doubt but what he is mistaken. 

After words of doubt, fear, or denial, that is preferable to but, but what, 
but that, and sometimes to lest. Also how and as that are sometimes used im- 
properly for that. 

I have no doubt but you can help him. — Dr. Johnson. 

I am surprised how you could do such a thing. 

He could not deny but what he borrowed the money 

There is no question but the universe has certain bounds to it. 

I was afraid lest you would not return soon enough. 

I don't know as I shall go, and I don't know but what I shall. 

He is not so tired but what he can whistle. — that . . . not — 

This is none other but the gate of Paradise. 

Other, else, or the comparative degree, must generally be followed by than. 
O fairest flower, no sooner blown but blasted ! — Milton. 
It is nothing else but the people's caprice. — Swift. 
The loafer seems to be created for no other purpose but to keep up 

the ancient order of idleness. — Irving. 
Style is nothing else but that sort of expression which our thoughts 

most naturally assume. — Blair. 
There is no other umbrella here but mine. 



FALSE SYNTAX. — GENERAL RULES. 213 

Nothing else but this will do. It was no one else but him. 

It would be still better to omit else from the two foregoing sentences. 
Scarcely had he uttered the word, than the fairy disappeared, (when) 
I will not go without you go too. — unless — 
They were all there, unless two or three. — except — 
Proportion is simple and compound. — either . . . or — 
To borrow or to lend is equally imprudent. (Equally requires and.) 
Every one was dressed alike. — Swift. 

Say, " They were all dressed alike ; " for alike here requires plurality. 
The multitude rebuked them, because they should hold their peace. 
The donation was the more acceptable, that it was given without 

solicitation. 
Prepositions. He died with a fever. He died for thirst. 
I am sick . . . the ague. He is sick . . . the measles. 
Do not let the dog come in the house. He came of a sudden. 
This is a very different dinner to what we had yesterday. 
I have little influence with him. I live to home. 
I left my book to home. His case has no resemblance with mine. 
I should differ with you, in regard to that affair. 

Well authorized, and therefore proper; still, from seems to be in better keep- 
ing with analogy. English writers generally say differ with, in reference to mat- 
ters of opinion ; and differ from, in all other cases. " I differ with the honorable 
gentleman on that point." — Brougham. 

The soil is adapted for wheat and corn. 

He was accused with having acted unfairly. 

The sultry evening was followed with a storm. 

(What is the difference between walking in a garden and walking 

into a garden ?) 

They spent the summer at the North, in a small village. 

He resides No. 125, Tenth Street. 

A person lives at a No., and in a street; also on a street, especially if it is 
wide, like an avenue. 

Please walk in the setting-room. His prejudice to our cause. 

Far preferable is a cottage with liberty, than splendor with debt. 

Such were the difficulties with which the question was involved. 

He always tries to profit from the errors of others. 

You may rely in what I say, and confide on his honesty. 

I was disappointed in the pleasure of meeting you. 

There is constant hostility between the several tribes of Indians. 

The space between the three lines is the area of the triangle, (within) 

The greatest masters of critical learning differ among one another. 

Say, " among themselves ; n for we could not say one among another* 



214 TEXT COURSE. 

A combat between twenty Texans against fifty Mexicans. 

Sundries. I was thinking of the best place for an office, [another. 

This can be made an objection against one government as well as 

Abercrombie had still nearly four times the number of the enemy. 

I am looking for re-enforcements, which the enemy can not expect. 

My Christian and surname begin and end with the same letter. 

Each then took hold of one end of the pole, to carry the basket. 

Between grammar, logic, and rhetoric, there exists a close and 
happy connection ; which reigns through all science, and ex- 
tends to all the powers of eloquence. — Mahan. 

Observe that which does not denote the identical connection mentioned before 
it; and therefore the word connection is not the proper antecedent. Say, 
" Grammar, logic, and rhetoric have .... and such a connection reigns, indeed, 
through all science," etc. 

The use of which accents [Greek and Roman] we have now en- 
tirely lost. — Blair. (We never had them to lose. Say, is lost.) 

Our pronunciation must have appeared to them [the Greeks and 
the Romans] a lifeless monotony. — Blair. (They never heard 
it. Say, would have appeared.) 

4. Improper Arrangement of Words. 
Rule IV. — All the parts of a sentence should be so 
arranged as to make it correct, clear, and elegant. 

Any violent break or separation in the natural order of words is gen- 
erally improper, except when it is needed for great rhetorical effect. 

Poetry allows great liberty in the arrangement of words; but any 
inversion that perverts or obscures the meaning, or that is more uncouth 
than poetical, should be avoided. 
She praised the farmer's, as she called him, excellent understanding. 

Change also the kind of expression, when it is necessary to do so. 

A sober and industrious life he had nothing; of. — Brougham. 
Nature mixes the elements variously and curiously sometimes, it is 

true. 
Adversity both taught you to think and to reason. — Steele. 

Special care should be taken to give correlatives their right place in the sen- 
tence. 

I shall neither depend on you nor on him. 
Not only he found her employed, but pleased and tranquil also. 
Our pleasures rather seem to spring from things too low that lie. 
How pleasant it is at night no follies to have to repent. 
Shame-faced and timid, you may imagine me spending my first 
forenoon among strange scenes and stranger faces, at ten years 



FALSE SYNTAX. — GENERAL RULES. 215 

of age, all ignorant of what I was to do, as I thus entered upon 
active life, and what was to be my experience, and excuse me 
if I defer its realities to another time. (Reconstruct.) 

Miscellaneous Examples. 

Frequently, a sentence has two or more different errors. 

1. It is our duty to protect this government and that flag from 
every assailant, be they whom they may. — Douglas. 2. Par- 
ents are of all other people the very worst judges of their chil- 
dren's merits ; for what they reckon such, is seldom any thing else 
but a repetition of their own faults. — Addison. 3. Prepositions, 
you recollect, connect words as well as conjunctions ; how, then, can 
you tell the one from the other? — It. C. Smith. 4. The empire 
of Blefuscu is an island situated to the north-east side of Liliput, 
from whence it is parted only by a channel of eight hundred yards 
wide. — Swift. 5. He looked anxiously over her shoulder to see 
if Quilp were following ; and then he entertained himself as he 
went with visions of success. — Dickens. 6. If it were theater 
night, perhaps they met at the theater ; if it were assembly night, 
they met at the rooms ; and if it were neither, they met the next 
day — a pleasant routine, with perhaps a slight tinge of sameness. 
— Id. 7. I would rather that the subject was never mentioned 
between us. — Id. 8. If the excited populace knew I was here, 
I should be torn to pieces. — Id. 9. Let us inquire whether there 
be any governing principle in this matter. — Bain. 10. Almost 
every writer uses more relatives than is necessary. — Id. 11. So 
then they pours him out a glass of wine, and gammons him about 
his driving, and gets him into a regular good humor. — News- 
paper. 12. An uninflected language, like the English, is really 
the best, [;] though a language rich in terminations might have 
special advantages over one that was not. — Magazine. 13. He 
said it was now five years ago since he was in Paris. — Id. 14. 
The United States having thus become [the proprietor ? or proprie- 
tors f] of what lis ? or are ?] called the public lands, the nation 
was rescued from many evils. — Hall. 15. Being officers, they 
treated us with great respect. — Abbott. (Ambiguous.) 16. 
The clock is standing. — Id. (Rather say, has stopped.) 

Bemwrfc.-Wc can say either, — " Turn to the fiftieth page ; " or, " Turn 
to page fifty." Fifty is a noun here used by synecdoche for page, and put in 
apposition with it; c'f. " the year 1870," " room 25," etc. In discussing a subject 
by numerical divisions, we should say, "First, secondly, thirdly," etc., when 
we refer to the verb; and "First, second, third," etc., when we refer to the 
divisions. 



216 TEXT COURSE. 

MODIFICATIONS OF SYNTAX. 

We have now presented the general syntax of all the 
parts of speech ; but to make language most effective, this 
general syntax is frequently modified or improved in various 
ways. 

1. By Ellipsis. Ellipsis is the omission of words. 

A plain road led us from the old bridge to the new (bridge)* 
Wait for me at Taylor's (.store). The brightest men are not 
always the most successful (men). The team consisted of a horse 
and (a) mule. The evening and (the) morning were the first day. 
He is wiser than you are (wise). The nights were cool, and the 
days too (were cool). Be (thou) sincere. Stand (ye) firm. She 
brought the prettiest flower (that) she found. Sweet (is) the pleas- 
ure, rich (/s) the treasure. Myself (being) a refugee. Let me 
(be) alone. Bring (to) me your slate. He was proud, stern, (and) 
inflexible. I knew (that) he was there. Few are more resolute 
than he (is resolute). O (how much I ivish) that those lips had 
language ! He returned ; I know not why (he returned). 

Memarfc. — Omitted words are such as have already been mentioned, or 
else such as may be readily inferred from the words used. The little words that 
make syntax, rather than the important words that express the chief ideas, are 
the ones most frequently omitted. 

Omit the unnecessary words : — 

All things that are in the world, confess the power, the wisdom, 
and the goodness of the Creator. Providence rewards the good 
people, and punishes the bad people. There is nothing in human 
life more amiable and more respectable than the character of a 
truly wise and truly benevolent man. The rudiments of every 
language must be given as a task, and they must not be given as 
an amusement. Be willing to assist such persons as need assist- 
ance aftid deserve assistance. I see a hand which thou canst not 
see, which beckons me away. He who does the best that his cir- 
cumstance allows, does well, and acts nobly ; the angels themselves 
could do no more. 

Zeuffmn. — Zeugma is a forced contraction in syntax. A part, in stead of 
being repeated, is combined with more than belongs to it or agrees with it; as, 
'• One or more scapegoats" (Irving); "In him who is, or him who finds, a 
friend" (Pope). See also stanza ftom Gray, p. 221. 

2. By Pleonasm or Repetition. Pleonasm is the use 
of more words than the sense or the syntax absolutely 



MODIFICATIONS OF SYNTAX. 217 

requires. Either the same word is repeated, or an 
equivalent expression is used. 

I saw it with my own eyes. The vessel sailed for Cuba, and not 
for California. Our boat sunk down to the very bottom. One of 
the few, the immortal names, that were not bom to die. Mourn, 
hapless Caledonia, mourn. O Absalom, Absalom! my son, my 
son ! The endless sands yield nothing but small stunted shrubs — 
even these fail after the first two or three days ; and from that time 
you pass over broad plains — you pass over newly reared hills — 
you pass through valleys that the storm of the last week has dug, 
and the hills and the valleys are sand, sand, still sand, and only 
sand, and sand, and sand again (Crossing- the Desert). 
Improve the following sentences by pleonasm or repetition : — 
Charge, Chester. He ran faster. Where are the Pilgrim 
Fathers? She was so young, fair, and intelligent. We pledge 
our lives, fortunes, and sacred honors. I would never surrender, 
never. Such a man may fall a victim to power, but truth, virtue, 
and religion will fall with him. (Repeat and.) A funeral in 
town is made up of show and gloomy parade ; mourning carriages, 
horses, plumes, and hireling mourners, who make a mockery of 
grief. (Repeat mourning.) Strike — till the last armed foe ex- 
pires, and for your altars, fires, the green graves of your sires, 
God, and your native land ! 

Alliteration. — Writers sometimes consider it a beauty to begin with the 
same letter or letters words that are consecutive, or near each other; as, " Fields 
for ever fresh, and groves for ever green ; " "I merely wished to show that 
literary leviathan how much easier it is to be critical than correct " (Byron). 

Itemark. — Sometimes ellipsis and pleonasm are combined; the unimpor- 
tant words being omitted, and the important ones repeated; as, "A horse! a 
horse 1 my kingdom for a horse ! " 

3. By Inversion. Inversion is some deviation from 
the most common arrangement of words. 

Restore the following sentences to a more common arrangement of the 
words : — 

Me glory summons to the martial scene. A joy thou art, and 
a wealth, to all. Her page the Muse of history unrolls. Here 
rests his head, upon the lap of earth, a youth to fortune and to 
fame unknown. Strong he was, and brave, and violent. Up 
soars the lark, shrill-voiced and loud. Fiercely they raged against 
the Highest. We set him down, and away he ran. Then first 
thy Sire, to send on earth, Virtue, his darling child, designed. 



218 TEXT COURSE. 

Sweet music rang the leafy dells along. Who noble ends by noble 
means obtains, that man is great indeed. As you sow, you shall 
reap. Violets meek and jonquils sweet she chose. Teach me my 
own defects to scan ; what others are, to feel ; and know myself a 
man. 

JtetnarTc. — The beginning and the end are the most important places of a 
sentence; and the writers who study rhetorical effect, are careful to use these 
places to the best advantage. 

Vary, in as many ways as possible, the order of the words : — 
If you desire it, I will accompany you. In proportion to the 
increase of luxury, the Roman state evidently declined. To 
secure to us the blessings of liberty, our fathers endured a long 
and bloody war. Having saved some money, the little family 
retired to the country. Over thy soil, Judaea, walked those blessed 
feet which eighteen hundred years ago were nailed, for our ad- 
vantage, to the bitter cross. 

4, By Enariage. Enallage is the use of one part 
of speech, or of one form of a word, for another. 

« Thinks I to myself, I'll stop." — J. Taylor. " The swallow 
sings sweet from her nest in the wall." — Dimoxd. "And the 
idols are broke in the temple of Baal." — Byron. "Fare thee 
well, thou best and dearest! " — Burns. 

JiernarU. — Mimicry is the imitation of another person's improper use of 
language; and an archaism is a word or expression that is imitative of ancient 
style or usage. Both these modes of expression are, in most cases, but species 
of enallage. 

5. By Similarity or Correspondence of Expression. 

Out of debt, out of danger. Soon ripe, soon rotten. The 
deeper the well, the cooler the water. As a drop falls into a river, 
so a human life falls into eternity. What sculpture is to a block 
of marble, education is to a human soul. Kings will be tyrants 
from policy, when subjects are rebels from principle. Ask, and it 
shall be given you ; seek, and ye shall find ; knock, and it shall be 
opened unto you : for every one that asketh, receiveth ; and he 
that seeketh, findeth; and to him that knocketh, it shall be 
opened. 

" Homer was the greater genius ; Virgil the better artist : in 
the one we most admire the man ; in the other, the work. Homer 
hurries us with a commanding impetuosity ; Virgil leads us with 
an attractive majesty. Homer scatters with a generous profusion ; 
Virgil bestows with a careful magnificence. Homer, like the Nile, 



MODIFICATIONS OF SYNTAX. 219 

pours out his riches with a sudden overflow ; Virgil, like a river 
within its banks, with a constant stream." — Pope. 

Simile, —A direct comparison, that lies in the thought, is called a simile, 

6. By Contrast, or Antithesis, 

At his touch, crowns crumbled, beggars reigned, systems van- 
ished. Sink or swim, live or die, I give my hand, and my heart, 
to this vote. He hath cooled my friends, and heated mine enemies. 
Women are soft, mild, pitiful, and flexible ; thou, stern, obdurate, 
flinty, rough, remorseless. The miser grows rich by seeming poor ; 
an extravagant man grows poor by seeming rich. 

To-day man's dressed in gold and silver bright, 

Wrapped in a shroud before to-morrow night ; 

To-day he's nice, and scorns to feed on crumbs, 

To-morrow he's himself a dish for worms. 

7# By Climax, Climax means ladder. It is a grad- 
ual climbing, or rise of thought, from tilings inferior 
to greater or better. When reversed, it is called 
anticlimax. 

Indolence implants vices ; vices lead to crimes ; and crimes, to 
the gallows. Men would be angels, angels would be gods. A 
Scotch mist becomes a shower ; and a shower, a flood ; and a flood, 
a storm ; and a storm, a tempest ; and a tempest, thunder and 
lightning; and thunder and lightning, heaven-quake and earth- 
quake. Anticlimax : Great men — such as Washington, Adams, 
Jefferson, Aaron Burr, Stephen Arnold, and the friend of my 
worthy opponent ! 

Change each of the following sentences into a climax: — 

1. The stream of literature has swollen into a torrent — ex- 
panded into a sea — augmented into a river. 2. He sells, he kills, 
he steals, he buys, for gold. 3. It is an outrage to bind a Roman 
citizen ; to put him to death is almost parricide ; to scourge him 
is an atrocious crime ; but to crucify him — what shall I call it ? 
4. Here I stand for impeachment or trial ! I defy the government ! 
I defy the honorable gentleman ! I dare accusation ! I defy their 
whole phalanx ! 

8. By Interrogation* 

Where is the honest man that would suffer himself to be 
stripped of his rights and liberties? i.e., No honest man would 
6uffer himself to be stripped of his rights and liberties. "Bat 



220 TEXT COURSE. 

when shall we be stronger ? Will it be the next week, or the next 
year ? Will it be when we are totally disarmed, and when a 
British guard shall be stationed in every house ? * * * Is life so 
dear or peace so sweet as to be purchased at the price of chains 
and slavery ? " 

Change into the interrogative form : — 

Storied urn or animated bust can not call the fleeting breath back 
to its mansion. The voice of honor can not re-animate the silent 
dust, nor can flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of death. The 
hawthorn bush gives a sweeter shade to shepherds looking on their 
silly sheep than a rich embroidered canopy gives to kings that 
fear the treachery of their subjects. 

9. By Exclamation. 

" What business could the honest man have in my room ! " i.e., 
The honest man could have no business in my room. " Ah, what 
a sound will rise, how wild and dreary, when the Death Angel 
touches those swift keys ! " " How delicious was the taste of 
young potatoes when we got them ! What a jubilee when we 
were permitted to pull the young corn for roasting-ears ! " 

Change into the exclamatory form : — 

Lord Chatham was a powerful man. The gay green birch 
bloomed sweetly, and rich was the hawthorn's blossom. If I had 
wings like a dove, I would fly away, and be at rest. The vegeta- 
ble kingdom lies dead, and the tuneful is dumb. I wish that my 
head were waters, and mine eyes a fountain of tears. 

10, By Vision. Vision represents something that is 
past, future, absent, or simply imagined, as if it were 
really present. 

" Caesar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, and enters Italy ; " 
i.e., left — crossed — entered. " One morning, while they were at 
breakfast, up gallops a troop of horse, and presents an order for 
the arrest of the whole party." " Frederick immediately sent 
relief; and, in an instant, all Saxony is overflowed with armed 
men." " Advance, then, ye future generations ! We would hail 
you as you rise in your long succession ! * * * W r e bid you wel- 
come in this pleasant land of the Fathers ! " " Soldiers ! from yon- 
der pyramids, forty centuries look down upon you ! " 

MemarU. — Vision generally implies a change of tense. Akin to vision is 
the transition from indirect discourse to direct ; but in such cases there is usually 
a change of person as well as of tense. Indirect : " Bonaparte inquired whether 



MODIFICATIONS OF SYNTAX. 221 

the Alps were passable; and, having received a favorable reply, he instantly 
gave orders to march." Direct: " ' Is the route practicable ?» inquired Bona- 
parte. ' It is barely possible to pass/ replied the first engineer. ' Then for- 
ward ! 7 rejoined the first Consul." 

11. By Apostrophe, Apostrophe is a sudden turn- 
ing-away, in the fullness of emotion, to address some 
person or object. 

" Death is swallowed up in victory. Death ! where is thy 
sting 9 Grave ! where is thy victory ? " 

" Thou lingering star, with lessening ray, 
That lov'st to greet the early morn, 
Again thou usher'st in the day 

My Mary from my soul was torn. 
O Mary ! dear departed shade ! " etc. 

MemarJc. — Apostrophe implies a change from third to second person, and 
it is generally based on Vision. 

12. By Imitation. 

1. In Thought. " Away they went, pell-mell, hurry-skurry, wild 
buffalo, wild horse, wild huntsman, with clang and clatter, and 
whoop and halloo, that made the forests ring." " On a sudden, 
open fly, with impetuous recoil and jarring sound, the infernal 
doors, and on their hinges grate harsh thunder." "Heaven 
opened wide her ever-during gates, harmonious sound on golden 
hinges turning." 

" Hear the sledges with the bells — silver bells ! 
What a world of merriment their melody foretells ! * * * 
Keeping time, time, time, — in a sort of Runic rhyme, — 
To the tintinnabulation that so musically wells 
From the bells, bells, bells, bells, bells, bells, bells, 
From the jingling and the tinkling of the bells." 

" When Ajax strives some rock's vast weight to throw, 
The line, too, labors, and the words move slow." 

2. In Style. 

" Perhaps in this neglected spot is laid 

Some heart once pregnant with celestial fire; 
Hands that the rod of empire might have swayed. 
Or waked to ecstasy the living lyre." — Gray. 

" Hands that the rod of empire might have swayed, 
Close at my elbow stir their lemonade." — Holmes. 



Thou melancholy Mug I * * * [own, 

And I must love thee, for thou art mine 
Pressed by my lips, and pressed by mine 
alone." — Holmes. 



" There is a lip I've often pressed, 

And none had ever pressed before; 
It voA-cd to make me sweetly blessed, 

Aud mine — mine only— pressed it more." 
— Barton. 

liemarlt. — Onomatopoeia and allusion sometimes lie merely in the choice 
Of words; but sometimes they belong to the general syntax. 



222 TEXT COURSE. 

13. By Variety of Sentences or Sentence-Structure* 

Sentences may by divided into simple, complex, com- 
pound, and contracted. 

1. Simple. — 1. The sheep is a useful animal. It affords us 
wool. From this wool we make clothes to keep us warm in winter. 
2. The air is a fluid. It encircles the earth. It is found in the 
pores of all terrestrial bodies. 3. There are evil deeds. No grass 
will grow over them. 4. After rain comes sunshine. Happiness 
follows sorrow. 5. The sword is not too heavy. Your arm is too 
weak. 6. A spark may burn a house. A single word may pro- 
duce a quarrel. 

2. Complex. — 1. The sheep is a useful animal that affords us 
wool from which we make clothes to keep us warm in winter. 
2. The air is a fluid that encircles the earth, and is found in the 
pores of all terrestrial bodies. 3. There are evil deeds over which 
no grass will grow. 4. I have heard his nonsense so often that my 
ears are glutted with it. 5. He makes more fuss about the matter 
than it deserves. 6. I will not believe that my heart, so long as 
it beats, can ever grow old, or cease to yearn for those delightful 
spots in bygone life which are ever green with the pleasant memo- 
ries of my boyish days. 

3. Compound. — 1. A spark may burn a house, and a single 
word may produce a quarrel. 2. The sword is not too heavy, but 
your arm is too weak. 3. On the panes of glass the frost had 
formed itself into a beautiful landscape, or it had spread itself out 
in the shape of trees and flowers. 4. The rain fell in sheets, the 
thunder rolled, the lightning flashed fierce and lurid, and the wind 
swept in gusts over the thicket as if it would uproot it altogether. 
5. We watch Fortune, we labor, we exhaust ourselves, we try all 
means to gain her favor : after all, however, the grave opens ; and, 
when too late, we discover that all below is vanity. 

4. Contracted. — 1. When Caesar had crossed the Rubicon, 
Pompey prepared for battle. Caesar having crossed the Rubicon, 
Pompey prepared for battle. 2. Since I had nothing else to do, I 
went. Having nothing else to do, I went. 3. She did not know 
what she should say. She did not know what to say. 4. I begged 
him that he would go with us. I begged him to go with us. 5. You 
will suffer from cold, if you remain here. You will suffer from 
cold by remaining here. 6. As we approached the house, we saw 
that the enemy were retreating. On approaching the house, we 



MODIFICATIONS OF SYNTAX. 223 

saw the enemy retreating. 7. He who is forewarned, is forearmed. 
Forewarned, forearmed. 8. Better late than never. 9. A friend 
is never known till needed. 10. The wolf may lose his teeth, but 
not his nature. 11. The wise man is happy when he gains his 
own approbation ; the fool, when he commends himself to the ap- 
plause of others. 12. If you wish a thing done, go ; if not, send. 

We have said (p. 104), that all sentences may be divided into 
simple and composite ; and that composite sentences may be divided 
into complex and compound (p. 193). Every contracted sentence 
must be either simple, complex, or compound. Hence there are but* 
three distinct kinds of sentences, — simple, complex, and compound. 
Contracted sentences, however, seem to be worthy of separate 
notice, because we sometimes feel that a sentence is not only sim- 
ple, complex, or compound, but that it is furthermore the result of 
some modification ; though it is occasionally difficult to determine 
whether a sentence has been contracted or not. In explaining the 
various parts of speech, we have made simple sentences sufficiently 
familiar to the learner ; but complex, compound, and contracted 
sentences deserve some further notice. 

A Complex Sentence consists of a principal and one or more 
dependent clauses. The dependent clause is used in the sense 
of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. Noun clauses are subjec- 
tive, objective, attributive, or appositive (see p. 95) ; adjective 
clauses are chiefly relative clauses in form ; and adverbial clauses 
are adverbial or conjunctive in form. 

Change into a complex sentence, with a noun clause: — 
1. Pride will not owe any thing. Self-love will not pay any 
thing. This makes so many ungrateful people in the world. 
2. Physicians have observed this. The son is frequently attacked 
by a disease at the same period of life in which the father was at- 
tacked by it. 3. My desire was this. He should withdraw from 
the partnership. 4. Mental qualities depend greatly on those of 
the body. This is too often forgotten. 5. It is reasonable to be- 
lieve this. Warm climates accelerate the growth of the body, and 
shorten its duration. 

Ex. — What makes so many ungrateful people in the world is, that pride will 
not owe any thing, and self-love will not pay any thing. 

Change into a complex sentence, with an adjective clauso: — 

1. Some people regard money as the highest object. They 

shall die unsatisfied. 2. The sun is a vast body. It sends out 

beams of light in every direction. 3. John the Baptist wore a 

garment. It was made of camel's hair. 4. I have but one lamp. 

My feet are guided by it. 5. The gay breezes wander about. 



224 TEXT COURSE. 

They make a lulling sound in the elm. 6. Such happiness there 

was. It might be felt among the flowers of Paradise. 7. I gave 

orders. He should go to work immediately. 

Ex. — Those people who regard money as the highest object, shall die un- 
satisfied. 

Change into a complex sentence, with an adverbial clause : — 

1. The gentle flowers bend their heads. The limpid waters 

glide there. 2. I rest. The vales of Italy are around me. 

3. They came to the grave early on a Sunday morning. The sun 
was rising. 4. A person is not master of his feelings. He is 
hardly master of his conduct. 5. Prejudices have many roots. 
Principles have not so many. 6. Seek for wisdom. The plant 
seeks for light. 7. Clouds can travel far. The goodness of God 
reaches farther. 

Ex. — The gentle flowers bend their heads where the waters glide. 

A Compound Sentence consists of two or more independent 
clauses that are generally united in an additive, adversative, alter- 
native, or inferential sense. 

Change into compound sentences : — 

1. The maple on the hill-side has lost its bright green. Its 
leaves have the hue of gold. 2. The weight of years has bent 
him. The winter of age rests upon his head. 3. The Indian ex- 
tinguished his fire, and left the burial-ground of his fathers. He 
retreated like the stealthy tiger, watching the return of his foe. 

4. Come ye in peace here? Come ye in war? 5. A rose lay on 
my book. I know not how it came there. (Make one clause 
parenthetic.) 6. There can be no study without time. The mind 
must abide, and dwell upon things, or be always a stranger to the 
inside of them. 7. " Come," says Puss, " without any more ado." 
" 'Tis time to go to breakfast." " Cats don't live upon dialogues." 
8. The union is the vital sap of the tree. If we reject the Con- 
stitution, we' girdle the tree. Its leaves will wither, its branches 
drop off, and the moldering trunk will be torn down by the 
tempest. 

Ex. — The maple on the hill-side has lost its bright green, and its leaves have 
the hue of gold. 

Contraction. Sentences are contracted, — 

1. By Ellipsis, which consists in using a part but once that re- 
lates to two or more parts, and compounding them ; or in omitting 
words that are not needed to convey the meaning. 

2. By Abridgment, which consists in changing clauses into 
phrases. 

Contract the following sentences : — 

1. St. Peter's Church, which is the most magnificent in Europe, 
was built about 300 years ago. 2. Joab killed Absalom, who was 
a disobedient son of David. 3. The music which proceeds from 



MODIFICATIONS OF SYNTAX. 225 

the organ is the most suitable accompaniment to religious reflec- 
tion. 4. Samuel, who had fled from his mother, dedicated himself 
to the service of the Lord. 5. John the Baptist wore a garment 
which was made of camel's hair. 6. I wish that he would go. 
7. Physicians' faults are covered with earth, and rich men's faults 
are covered with money. 8. He who is everybody's friend, is 
nobody's friend. 

Ex. — St. Peter's Church, the most magnificent in Europe, was built about 
300 years ago. 

Contract the following Italicized phrases into compound words : — 

1. Bring me my boots with red tops. 2. He is a man of high 

birth and spirit. 3. This stream furnishes a supply of water that 

never fails. 4. No statesman that can see far and has a true heart 

would propose such measures. 5. The milk in which butter is 

churned, is wholesome. 

Remark. — Compound words consist of noun with noun, as cornfield; ad- 
jective with noun, as blackbird; verb with noun, as pickpocket ; adverb with 
noun, as outlaw; preposition with noun, as afternoon; adverb with verb, as 
overshoot ; noun with adjective, as sun-bright ; noun with participle, as spirit- 
stirring, moth-eaten; adverb with participle, as well-bred; verb with verb, as 
hear-say ; noun with verb, as brow-beat ; adjective with verb, as white-wash ; 
adverb with adverb, as thenceforward ; preposition with preposition, as within. 

14. By Versification, Versification is the art of 
making verse. Verse is the musical arrangement of 
words according to some regular accent. Also pauses 
and rhymes are generally used as elements of verse. 

Verse consists of measured lines, each having seldom less than 
two syllables or more than twenty-two. 

Each measure consists of two or three syllables, has a stress, or 
accent, on the first or the last syllable, and is called a foot. 

The principal feet are four ; the iambus, the anapest, the trochee, 
and the dactyl. 

Iambic verse is divisible into little portions of two syllables 
each, accented on the second syllable ; anapestic verse, of three 
syllables each, accented on the last syllable ; trochaic verse, of two 
syllables each, accented on the first syllable ; and dactylic verse, 
of three syllables each, accented on the first syllable. 

Iambic Verse. — 1. Afar. 2. The stars shone bright. 3. Thou 
moon that riiPst the night. 4. The woods are hushed, the waters 
rest. 5. How sweet, at eve, the village murmur rose ! 6. The 
dew was falling fast, the stars began to blink. 7. The flames that 
lit the battle's wreck, shone round him d er the dead. 

Anapestic Verse. — 1. From afar. 2. Like a rose pearled in 
dew. 3. I am monarch of all I survey. 4. At the close of the 
day, when the hamlet is still. 
15 



226 TEXT COURSE. 

Trochaic Verse. — 1. Turning. 2. Gently flowing. 3. G<5 
where glory waits thee. 4. Do not say that life is fleeting. 5. 
Come, O, come with me ; the moon is beaming. 6. On' a moun- 
tain stretched beneath a hoary willow. 7. Let us seek the grassy 
bank by lofty maples shaded. 8. Beams of noon, like burning 
lances, through the tree-tops flash and glisten. 

Dactylic Verse. — 1. Fearfully. 2. Bird of the wilderness. 
3. Pleasures in endless variety. 4. Could he but have a glimpse 
into futurity. 

To each of the foregoing species of lines, we sometimes find a 
part of another foot added. 

Ex. — " Restless mortals toil for naught." 

" Far adown the long aisle sacred music is str^am-iw^." 

Poetic Pauses. — There are also two pauses, the final and the 

ccesural, which divide verse into portions of agreeable symmetrical 

length. The final pause occurs at the end of the line ; the ccesural, 

within the line, and belongs chiefly to long lines. 

Ex. — " The evening was glorious, | and light through the trees | 

Played the sunshine and raindrops, | the birds and the breeze." 

Most verse is still further divided into agreeable portions, by 
making some of the feet, or parts of feet, answer to each other by 
similarity of sound. These corresponding sounds are called rhymes, 
and they occur usually at the ends of the lines. Verse that has 
no rhyme, is called blank verse. 

What the pupil needs most to know, in regard to verse, are poetic licenses. 

A Poetic License is an allowed deviation from the correctness 
of ordinary prose, to enable the poet to reach more easily the re- 
quirements of verse. 

Poetic licenses are allowed, — 

1. In Spelling. Poets frequently shorten words by the elision 
of some letter or syllable. 

2. In Pronunciation. Poets sometimes change the accent of a 
word ; and sometimes they adopt some old pronunciation, in order 
to make a rhyme. 

3. In the Choice of Words. Poets have gradually gathered and 
manufactured for themselves a little extra vocabulary of words. 
These consist of antiquated words, foreign words, and common 
words shortened or lengthened. Hie following are specimens: 
Ken, wend, ween, trow, rife, yore, lone, guerdon, welkin, whilom, 
albeit, eyne, brand (sword), sylvan, steed, swain, morn, eve, fount, 
plaint, ope, meed, fane, yon, darksome, stilly, vasty, evanish, be- 
dimmed, bewept. 



MODIFICATIONS OF SYNTAX. 227 

4. In the Meanings of Words. Poets sometimes vary the mean- 
ings of words, or employ a less appropriate word. 

Ex. — " Chill Penury repressed their noble rage.' 1 '' — Gray. (For zeal.) 

A license in regard to the meaning or pronunciation of a word is always a 
blemish, rather than a beauty. 

5. In Idioms, Poets sometimes use uncommon native idioms, 

and frequently borrow idioms from foreign languages. 

Ex. — " Who would not sing for Lycidas ? He knew 
Himself to siny, and build the lofty rhyme." 

6. In Syntax- Violent inversion. Violent ellipsis. Violations 
of the minor rules or principles of grammar. In general, any in- 
version or ellipsis is allowable that will preserve the sense. 
Omission of Article. " The why is plain as A way to A parish church." 
Omission of Pronouns. " It was a tall young oysterman A lived by 

the river-side." — Holmes. 
(Omission of It.) " Suffice A , to-night, these orders to obey." 
Omission of Verb. " Sweet A the pleasure, rich A the treasure." (is) 
Omission of Principal Verb. " Angels could A no more." (do) 
Object before its Verb. " Him well I knew. 9 ' 
Subject after the Verb. " Echo the mountains round." 
Auxiliary after Principal Verb. " Nestled at its roots is beauty." 
Adjective after its Noun. " Violets blue and daisies white" [pale." 
Predicate Adjective before its Verb. "Purple grows the primrose 
Pronoun before Antecedent. " Back to its mansion call the fleet- 
ing breath" [that lie." (Inelegant.) 
Relative Clause severed from Antecedent. " From things too low 
Adverb between to and the rest of the Infinitive. " To slowly trace 

the forest's shady scene." 
Preposition after its Object. " Birds sang the leafy dells within." 
Adjuncts, participial phrases, infinitive phrases, and adjective 

phrases are frequently transposed. 
Self added to a Noun. " Mourned till Pity's self be dead." 
Pleonastic Pronoun added to its Antecedent. " My banks they are 
furnished with bees." [green bank." 

Simple Pronoun for Compound. " I laid me [myself] down on a 
Adjective used for Adverb. " So sweet she sung." (sweetly) 
Adjective for Noun. "O'er the vast abrupt." [found" 

Intransitive Verb made Transitive. " To meditate the blue pro- 
Past Tense for Perfect Participle. " The idols are broke" — Byron. 
First or Third Person Imperative in stead of Let. " Turn we to 
survey," etc. 



228 TEXT COURSE. 

Or — or, nor — nor, for either — or, neither — nor. "Nor in sheet 
nor in shroud we wound him." 
Scanning is the dividing of verse into its feet. 

15. By Punctuation. Punctuation treats of the 
points or marks used in writing and printing. 

The principal marks of this kind are the following : — 
• The Period ; which denotes the longest pause, or a full stop. 
: The Colon ; which denotes the next shorter pause. 
; The Semicolon ; which denotes the next shorter pause. 
, The Comma; which denotes the shortest psuse. [question. 

? The Interrogation-Point 5 which is placed after every direct 
I The ExclamationJPoint; which denotes great surprise, joy, or 
other excitement. 

Hence it is generally placed after interjections or unusually earnest addresses. 

— The Dash ; which denotes emphasis or abruptness. 
Hence the dash is frequently used to set off a parenthesis. 

r ) The Curves ; which inclose some explanation or remark that 

can be omitted. 
[] The Bracketsf which inclose some correction or explanation 

that is generally inserted by another person. 
4699 The Quotation=»Marks; which inclose words taken from 

another person. [tation.' " 

*'■ u Single Quotation-Marks inclose ' a quotation within a quo- 
9 The Apostrophe ; which denotes possession or omission. 

- The Hyphen; which joins the parts of most compound words, 

and is placed at the end of a line when a part of a 
word is carried to the next line. 
r The Acute Accent % which marks stress of voice. 
\ The Grave Accent ; which shows a sinking of the voice, or 

brings out a syllable. 
- The Macron; which marks a long sound, as in live. 
xj The Breve ; which marks a short sound, as in live. 
•• The Diaeresis 5 which separates two vowels into two syllables. 
/\ The Caret; which is used in writing, to show where words or 

letters are to be inserted. 
J The Brace ; which serves to connect parts. [ions of a book. 
§ The Section ; which is sometimes used to mark the small divis- 
1f The Paragraph 5 which shows where a new subject begins. 



MODIFICATIONS OF SYNTAX. 229 

* f, J The Star, Dagger, and Double Dagger 5 which are used as 

marks of reference. Letters or figures are sometimes 
used for the same purpose. 

* * * ? or Stars, Double Dash, or Periods ; which de- 

note omission or suppression. 
Jgt^ The Hand 5 which directs special attention to something. 
The chief point is the comma ; and it has three principal uses. 

1. To separate clauses. 

(Insert commas.) What you leave at your death let it be without 
controversy else the lawyers will be your heirs. I go but I return. 
Either a sterner course must be pursued with him or he must be sent to 
some other school. Columbus who discovered America was a Genoese. 
Since life is short let us not be too solicitous about the future. Wealth 
is of no real use except it be well employed. The wind was the keenest 
and the snow the deepest that ever annoyed a traveler. 

2. To set off what is parenthetic. 

(Insert commas.) Burns however to be justly judged must be esti- 
mated by the times in which he lived. She is to be sure a very amiable 
woman/ How wretched were I mortal were my state ! A virgin of 
eighteen tall and straight bright and blooming seems to our old age a 
very delightful object. There lightly swung in bowery glades the honey- 
suckles twine. They knew their powers not or as they learned to know 
perverted them to evil. 

3. To separate the parts of a series, or two co-ordinate terms 
when the connective is omitted. . 

(Insert commas.) Days months years and ages shall circle away and 
still the vast waters above thee shall roll. This part of Arabia is popu- 
lous and fertile ; yielding oranges lemons almonds dates figs raisins 
honey and an abundance of corn cattle sheep and the finest of horses. 
It was a dark desolate region. The little ragged untaught child made 
me think of the little lonely blossom that is born to wintry days. 

Insert semicolons where a greater point than the comma is needed: — 
Without dividing, he destroyed party without corrupting, he made a 
venal age unanimous. A salad should be, as to its contents, multifari- 
ous as to its proportions, an artistic harmony as to its flavor, of a cer- 
tain pungent taste. " I have always," says' Ledvard, " remarked that 
women, in all countries, are civil and obliging that they are ever inclined 
to be gay and cheerful, timorous and modest and that they do not 
hesitate, like men, to perform a generous action." 

"The pride of wealth is contemptible; the pride of learning is pitiable: the 
pride of dignity is ridiculous; but the pride of bigotry is insupportable." Here 
the dash would have been too sentimental; the comma would have slurred the 
matter over too lightly; the colon would have indicated a different connection in 
thought; the period would have been too deliberate; but the semicolon gives 
due distinction to the parts, and the greatest energy to the whole. 

Insert a colon where the sense is "thus" " as follows" "for this reason" 
etc. : — 

Make a proper use of time the loss of it can never be regained. The 



230 MATTERS OF REFERENCE. 

procession was as follows The President, the Vice-President, the 
Speaker of the House, etc. All our conduct toward others should be 
influenced by this important principle Do unto others as you would 
have them do unto you. This is the state of man To-day he puts forth 
the tender leaves of hope; to-morrow blossoms, and bears his blushing 
honors thick upon him ; the third day comes a frost, a killing frost. 

Honor and shame from no condition rise 
Act well your part ; there all the honor lies. 

The colon is also used after a respectful address before a grave or weighty 
discourse; as, " Gentlemen of the Jury : You have listened to a long and able 
argument from my opponent, " etc. 



ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND IDIOMS. 

Grammar may be divided into three stages, — analysis, parsing, and 
idioms. Analysis treats of that general grammar which is common to 
all languages ; parsing directs the mind to the peculiar forms or varia- 
tions of a given language ; and idioms comprise those national pecu- 
liarities or whimsicalities of expression which require the most refined 
discrimination in the application of grammatical principles. Homer 
wrote nearly 3,000 years ago, and in a language different from ours ; 
yet he made his sentences, in their general structure, very much as we 
make sentences at the present day. It is "analysis " that is concerned with 
this general skeleton of thought which underlies all sentences in every 
language ; but which has nothing to do with variations in the form of 
words, for it is the office of parsing to direct the mind to all these. If 
I say, " The fire burns," " The fires burn," analysis makes no distinc- 
tion between the sentences, but divides each simply into subject and 
predicate; but parsing reaches the difference between fire and fires, 
barns and barn. Since language consists of but two things, — the thought 
and the expression, — if we make analysis always reach the sense, and 
parsing always reach the forms, the two will afford us the means of 
explaining language completely. Take the sentences, "The horse, 
with the saddle, was sold for a hundred dollars," " I believe him to be 
honest," " The lights burn blue ; " the subject of was sold, in parsing, 
is simply horse, for horse determines the form of icas sold; but analysis 
gives the full sense, by making the subject The horse, with the saddle. In 
parsing, him is the object of believe, for believe determines the form of 
the pronoun ; but this does not give the full sense, since the meaning is 
not, " I believe him ; " therefore analysis makes him to be honest the ob- 
ject, and thus satisfies- the sense. In parsing, blue is construed with 
lights; because, being an adjective, it has the form to suit a noun, and 
not a verb : yet, since blue also relates to burn, analysis must take care 



ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND IDIOMS. 231 

of this part of the sense ; so that we say, in analyzing, that the predicate 
is burn blue, and thus construe blue also with bum. Analysis and parsing 
generally coincide ; but where they have a tendency to differ, they should 
be made complements of each other. In analysis we give two heads to 
a statement, where in parsing we would allow but one. For instance, 
in parsing the sentence "John is idle," is and idle are both referred to 
John, for the subject is the nucleus of the sentence, and the verb itself 
is but an attribute ; but in analyzing this sentence, it is divided into two 
parts, or heads, — John the subject, is idle the predicate, and idle is con- 
strued with is because it makes with is the predicate, though it is not 
therefore an adverb. 

Idioms are generally colloquial deviations from the regular syntax 
of a language. Most of them consist of phrases that should be treated 
as single words ; or, whenever the words of a phrase can not be separated 
without destroying the sense, the entire phrase should be treated as a 
single word. The majority of the smallest and most common words of 
a language are generally used as different parts of speech, and are in- 
volved in most of the idioms. The following is a brief list of the most 
important words of this kind : — 

A. "A man's duties;" "A summer's day;" article. "To go a 
hunting ; " preposition. "A few men ; " a belongs to few men, as denot- 
ing one aggregate. (( An hour; " article. "An thou lovest me, no more 
of that ; " conj. = if. 

About. " What are you about?" prep. "He wanders about;" adv. 

Above. " He sits above me ; " prep. " He sits above; " adv. " They 
amounted to above a dozen" (Swift); supply number, or rather call 
above a dozen a noun. So, " And from before the luster of her face, white 
break the clouds away." 

Adieu. "Adieu! adieu! my native land" (Byron); interjection. 
" Wept a last adieu" (Cowper) ; " Bid him adieu " (Southey) ; noun. 

Adjectives are frequently used without nouns. In such cases, they 
should sometimes be parsed as adjectives, and the nouns should be sup- 
plied ; sometimes they should be parsed as nouns ; and sometimes as 
pronouns. The teacher should exercise due discrimination. Occasion- 
ally, it is rather difficult to decide whether such an adjective should be 
parsed as a noun or as a pronoun. All the words of language may bo 
divided into two classes, — notional words and form words: the former 
are most concerned with meaning ; and the latter, with syntax. The 
adjective is a noun when it belongs to the notional words, and a pronoun 
when it belongs to the form words. 

After* " He came after me ; " prep. " He came soon after ; " adv. 
" He came after I left ; " conj. adv. 



232 MATTERS OF REFERENCE. 

Again. "Call again;" adv. "Again and again," i.e., "repeated- 
ly ; " adv. phrase. "Again, it has been frequently observed that," etc. ; 
conj. Again and again, through and through, ever and anon, here and there, 
over and over, at all (as in " not at all "), at first, at once, at last, at least, 
at most, long ago, all over, all along, all hollow, etc. ; adverbial phrases. 

Alike. " They are alike ; " adj. " They please alike ; " adv. 

All. "All men ; " "All this ; " " We all; " adj. " Wealth, pleasure, 
and honors must all be given up ; " pron. " Our little all;" " He is all 
in all;" noun. ^ "I am all alone," i.e., wholly; "All bloodless;" adv. 

Any. " Any person ; " adj. " Are you any better ? " adv. 

Apposition, in reality, belongs not only to substantives, but also to 
adjectives, adverbs, phrases, clauses, or other parts, that imply echo or 
identification. 

As. "As cold as ice ; " adv. of degree. Conj. Adv. : " Skate as I 
skate ; " manner. " It fell as I entered ; " time. And probably, " As 
cold as ice ; " degree. "As [since] we all must die, why not be charita- 
ble ? " " Appoint him as clerk " = " Appoint him clerk ; " conj. " I 
object to his appointment as clerk;" prep. "Medals are given as re- 
wards at school;" conj. adv.: as a conjunction, it unites words in appo- 
sition ; and as an adverb, it modifies are given. " Let such as hear, 
take heed," i.e., those who; relative pronoun. As follows and as appears 
are generally best parsed as adverbial phrases, equivalent to thus and ap- 
parently : sometimes the pronoun it may be supplied. In parsing as re- 
gards and as concerns, it is probably best to supply it. As yet, adv. phr. ; 
as if, conj. phr., or simply conj. 

Ay. "Ay, so let it be ; " adv. " The ays have it ; " noun. 

Before. " He stood before me ; " prep. " I knew him before ; " adv. 
" He came before I returned ; " conj. adv. So, ere. 

Below. " Fields below us ; " prep. " He went below ; " adv. " The 
shining fields below;" adj., or Note VI. "Erom below;" n. So, be- 
neath. 

Beside. " I stood beside him ; " prep. " What do you know be- 
sides?" adv. "To all beside it is an empty shade," i.e., to all others; 
" O'er all the world beside," i.e., all the remaining world ; adj., or else 
adv. under Note VI. 

Best. " Do what is best ; " adj. " He best can tell ; " adv. " Tones 
he loved the best;" adv. phr. "To do one's best;" "At best;" "At 
worst ; " noun. 

Better. " I could have better [adv.] spared a better [adj.] man." 
" To get the better of; " " Take her for better or worse ; " noun. 

Both. " Both men ; " " We both ; " adj. " The bee and the butterfly 
are both busybodies ; " pron. " She is both amiable and intelligent ; " cor* 
rel. conj. So. either and neither. 



ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND IDIOMS. 233 

But. " Sin may gratify, but repentance stings ; " " He is not so tired 
but he can whistle ; " conj. "Whence all but [except] him had fled;" 
" Man but for [without] this were active to no end ; " prep. " Words 
are but [only] leaves ; " " I can but go ;" "I can not but [otherwise tlian] 
go ; " adv. 

By. " He passed by me ; " prep. " He passed by ; " adv. 

Cheap. " To sell cheap goods ; " adj. " To sell goods cheap ; " adv. 

Close. " Close the door ; " verb. " At the close of the day ; " noun. 
" A close fit ; " " To lie close ; " adj. " To linger close behind ; " adv. 

Daggers. " To look daggers ; " noun, objective. 

Dear. " He sells dear" i.e., at dear prices ; adv., used for adv. phr. 
" To pay dear for," i.e., a dear price ; adv., used for objective phrase. 
"My dear;" n. 

Deep. " A deep well ; " adj. "Deep calls unto deep ; " n. " Drink 
deep ; " adv. 

Draw. " To draw up, down, off, out, away, over, in, bach ; " adverbs. 
" To draw near, close, tight ; " adjectives. 

Each. "Each one ; " adj. " They took one each ; " pron. For each 
other, see p. 130. 

Else. " Any one else," i.e., any other one ; adj. " How else [other- 
wise] can I do it ? " adv. " He has not yet returned, else [or] he would 
write to us ; " conj. 

Enough. " Good enough ; " adv. " Money enough ; " adj. " To have 
enough ; " n. 

Fair. " A fair ; " n. " A fair day ; " adj. " To bid fair," i.e., to 
be fair in appearance ; adj. 

Fall. "We fell out, — my wife and I;" " To fall foul of;" com- 
pound verb. 

Far. "Afar country;" adj. "Far away;" adv. "Far up the 
hill;" adv., modifying the phrase which follows it. "From far;" 
" Thus far is right ; " noun. " He went as far as Richmond ; " prep. 

FareAvell. "Farewell, my friends!" inter j. "A long farewell;" 
" To bid [say] farewell " [to] ; noun. " A farewell address ; " adj. 

Fast. " A long fast ; " adj. and n. " To fast long ; " v. and adv. " To 
walk fast ; " " Fast asleep ; " adv. " To tie him fast ; " adj. 

First. " Glenara came first," i.e., was first in coming ; " adj. " To 
write first, then send ; " adv. 

For. " Send for him ; " prep. " I sent, for it was necessary ; " conj. 
" Taken for granted," i.e., for a thing granted. 

Full. " Bring it full ; " adj. " Full many a flower ; " adv. 

Half. " A half section of land ; " adj. " Half the men," i.e., half 
of; w. " To go halves with ; " n., Rule VI. " Half dead ; " adv. 



234 MATTERS OF REFERENCE. 

Hand. " To go hand in hand ;" adv. phr., or supply being. "Man 
by man" "Foot by foot" "Day after day ; " adv. phrases, or apply Rule 
VI. to the first noun. 

Hard. " It is hard; " adj. " To study hard • " adv. "Hard by a 
forest's side ; " adv. of place, modifying the phrase after it. 

Have. " I had as lief not be, as be the thing I am " (Shak.) ; " He 
had better have taken cold than taken our umbrella " ( Jerrold). 
Had ; verb, subjunctive mood ; implying conclusion ; past tense in form, 
but, like were, present in sense. [To] be; infinitive, depending on had. 
So, to have taken. 

High. " The spacious firmament on high ; " " The day-spring from on 
high ; " n. " A high position ; " adj. " They fired too soon, and too 
high" (Bancroft); adv. 

However. " However great ; " adv. " Great, however, as he is," etc. ; 
conj. 

III. " To fare ill ; " adv. " He was taken ill" i.e., became sick ; adj. 

Infinitive. It is sometimes difficult to decide whether a given word 
is a participle or an infinitive ; as, " The witnesses testified that they 
saw him buried." Here buried is the infinitive rather than the participle ; 
to, the sign of the infinitive, is omitted after the verb see ; and buried is 
equivalent to a clause or a noun, rather than to an adjective. " They 
saw that he was buried, or his burial ; " not, " They saw the buried man." 

It. " It was I ; " " It is 12 o'clock ; " " It rains ; " " Come, and trip 
it, as you go, on the light fantastic toe ; " no antecedent. The antece- 
dent of a pronoun is not the word which can be put in place of the pro- 
noun, but the word elsewhere used in reference to which the pronoun 
was chosen as a substitute. 

Late. " You are rather late ; " adj. " He worked late ; " adv. " Of 
late ;" n. 

Let. " Let out, let off, let on, let in, let down ; " adverbs, modifying 
generally some verb understood, as go or come. "Let loose " = Let it be 
or go loose ; adj. " Let go; " v., depending on it and Let. 

Like. " I like this ; " v. " I never saw the like ; " n. " He is like 
you ; " adj. " He stutters like you ; " adv. " I had like to have fallen " 
(Cowper) ; adv. " The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the 
fold." Supply coming as the antecedent of on. 

Little. " Little better ; " adv. " A little better ; " noun, Rule VI. 

Low. " To be low ; " " To sink low ; " adj. " To lie low;" adj., 
sometimes adv. " To aim low ; " " To speak low; " adv. 

Many. " Many a flower ; " adj., analogous to every. 

Mistake. " I was mistaken for my brother ; " passive verb. " I 
thought I saw you ; but I was mistaken ; " deponent verb. 



ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND IDIOMS. 235 

More. "More work; " adj. "More entertaining ; " adv. "To get 
more ; " n. " Your parents are no more ; " "The more we urged him, the 
more he resisted ; " adv. phrase. 

Much. " Much money ; " adj. " To have much ; " n. " To sleep 
much ; " adv. " Much the stronger," i.e., by much ; n., Rule VI. 

Names. " He called me names ; " Rule VI. 

Nay. " Nay, do not weep ; " adv. " To say nay ; " " The nays have 
it ; " n. Nay and yea are sometimes used as amplifiers, to indicate em- 
phatic addition of something more. When thus used, it is generally 
best to call them conjunctions. " 

No. " No place ; " adj. " No farther ; " adv. " No. never ! " Note 
VII. 

Now. " Now is the time to repent ; " adv. " Now is the time to re- 
pent in ; " n. " Now Barabbas was a robber ; " conj., implying transi- 
tion. 

Off. " To shoot a gun off; " adv. " A mile off the coast ; " prep. 
" He is well off," i.e., rich ; adj. " Off with his head V" imperative ad- 
verb ; Note VI., for no suitable verb can be supplied. 

Once. " I went but once ; " adv. " At once came forth whatever 
creeps ; " adv. please. " Now, just this once ; " n. 

Only. " The only man ; " adj. " He failed only once ; " adv. " I 
propose my thoughts only as conjectures ; " adv., relating to the apposi- 
tive phrase, as conjectures. 

Over. " We passed over the bridge ; " " Over against the church 
stands a hospital ; M prep. " We passed over ; " " I turned over a leaf; " 
adv. 

Participle. Most grammarians make nice distinctions in regard to 
participles. But when a word, or its chief part, is a participle, or is of 
participial origin, it is generally best to say at first that it is a participle, 
and parse it accordingly ; then its nature as any other part of speech, if 
used chiefly as such, may likewise be shown. Let every word be just 
what the sense makes it. Sometimes a word is evidently a variegated 
part of speech, resembling a variegated flower ; and when this is the case, 
it is best to mention the different elements of sense comprised in its 
general import. 

Put. " To put up with," i.e., to bear ; compound verb. 

Quite. " She is quite a beauty ; " " He is almost a poet ; " quite and 
almost are adverbs, modifying the predicates. 

Right. "Our lights;" "Encourage the right;" n. "It is right;" 
" All is going on right;" adj. " Right Reverend ; " u Right on ; " adv. 
" Right away ; " " Right off; " adv. phr. 

Run. " To run riot;" " To lay waste ; " Rule VI. " The brooks 



236 MATTERS OF REFERENCE. 

ran nectar ; " Rule VII. " The lightnings flashed vermilion " (Dante) ; 
adj. 

Save and But are prepositions when followed by the objective case, 
and conjunctions when followed by the nominative. Save may also be 
a transitive verb. 

Short. " To be short of money ; " adj. " To stop short ; " adv. 
" The short and long of it ; " n. 

Situated. " London is situated on the Thames ; " adj. 

So. " So frowned the combatants ; " adv. of manner. " It is so 
cold ; " adv. of degree. u So he does it, no matter when ; " conj. So is 
often used as a sort of pro-icord, to represent a word, phrase, or clause ; 
as, " He is very stingy ; but she is more so." 

Such. "Such and such a one" (Swift); adj. "I do not regard 
his rules as such" i.e., as i*ules ; pron., apposition. " Some flowers have 
beautiful names ; such as heart 's-ease, daisy, honeysuckle " (L. Hunt). 
Such, in this last sentence, is a pronoun, in apposition with names, as 
being included in it ; and as is a relative pronoun, predicated of hearts- 
case, etc., by the verb are understood. Such could also be referred to 
flowers. 

Than. "He is wiser than I" [am]; conj., connecting clauses. 
"This aunt Deborah had no more than a small life annuity;" conj., 
connecting words. " Beelzebub, than whom, Satan except, none higher 
sat" (Milton) ; prep. Than and as, when conjunctions, usually con- 
nect clauses ; but sometimes, when the latter term is included in the 
former, they connect words in apposition. 

That. " That man ; " adj. " No other home seems so lovely as that 
[the home] of his childhood ; " adj. pron. "It was he that assisted me ; " 
rel. pron. " I believe that all sickness is caused by improper living ; " conj. 

The. " The man ; " article. " The deeper, the cooler ; " adv. " The 
better to converse ; " " Whose sweet, entrancing tones he loved the best ; " 
adv. phrase. 

Then. " Did you hear it thunder then ? " adv. " If you think so, 
then do not purchase ; " conj. 

There. " There was no one there;" the first there is an adv. of posi- 
tion in syntax, the second is an adv. of place. " The ride there and back 
was delightful;" adj., showing what ride. "To the house thereof;" 
"And the fame hereof;" "Time when;" "The place where;" "All 
things whatsoever; " adj. Or, whatsoever, pron. ; supply they are. 

Till. " Stay till to-morrow ; " prep. " Stay till I return ; " conj. adv. 

Times. " Three times the son's age is equal to the father's " (Horace 
Mann) ; "Five times four are twenty " (Id.) ; "Five times one are five " 
(Id.). There is an inconsistency in the foregoing modes of expression. 



ANALYSIS, PAUSING, AND IDIOMS. 237 

Custom, however, seems determined to sanction them all. To parse 
them as they are, apply Rule VI. to times in the first example, and to 
four and one in the others. The son's age, taken three times, etc. Five 
times of four, as to four, or in regard to four, etc. 

Too. "Too small ;" adv. of degree. "Since he went, I will go 
too ; " " Devotion, too, hath lingered round each spot ; " Note VI. 

Up. " To march up a hill ; " prep. " To rise up ; " " Keep up ; " adv. 
" Man's life is full of ups and downs ; " n. 

What. " Take what [thai which] I offer ; " double rel. pron. " What 
ails you ? " inteirog. pron. " I know what ails you ; " responsive pron., 
or rel. indef. pron. (see p. 81). " What news from Genoa;" adj. 
" What [somewhat] with entreaty, what with threatening, I succeeded ; " 
adv. " What ! take my money, and my life too ? " interjection. In a 
recent English grammar, the double relative what has only one case as- 
signed to it, and the entire clause is parsed as the nominative or objec- 
tive of some other word. This will do in analysis, but never in parsing. 
Take a sentence like this : " What are called bowlders, prove the theory 
of glaciers" (Agassiz). Here, if the first clause, and not what, were 
the nominative of prove, then prove should be proves; for an entire 
clause is always in the singular number. 

When. " When was it ? " inteirog. adv. " Come when you can ; " 
conj. adv. " Since when was it ? " n. So, where. 

Which. " The table on which I write ; " rel. pron. " Which is he ? "■ 
interroy. pron. " Which book? " adj. " Can you tell which is which ? " 
(See KerFs Common-School Grammar, p. 226.) Who is used in nearly 
all the same different ways as which. 

Wit. " They are, to wit," etc. ; adv. phr. " These men, to wit," etc. ; 
conj. 

Worse. "To be worse;" adj. "To do worse;" adv. "For 
worse ;" n. 

Worth. "Slow rises worth by poverty depressed" (Johnson); n. 
"My knife is worth a dollar," i.e., equal in value to ; adj. ; dollar, Rule 
VI. "More worth to men, more joyous to themselves" (Young). 
" Woe worth the day; " verb, see p. 145. A few words — such as like, 
worth, near, opposite, and some verbs — seem to be also partly preposi- 
tional, or they have absorbed the meaning and the governing power of 
the preposition which naturally follows them. 

Yet. " Yet [conj.], though destruction sweep these lovely plains, 
Rise, fellow-men, our country yet [adv.] remains ! " 

Yonder. " Yonder church ; " adj. " He lives yonder; " adv. 



SUMMARY OF THE EULES OF SYNTAX- 

Rule I. — An independent noun or pronoun must 
be in the nominative case. 

Rule II. — A noun or pronoun, used as the subject 
of a predicate-verb, must be in the nominative case. 

Rule III. — A possessive noun or pronoun must be 
in the possessive case. 

Rule IV. — A noun or pronoun, used as the object 
of a transitive verb in the active voice, must be in the 
objective case. 

Rule V. — A noun or pronoun, used as the object of 
a preposition, must be in the objective case. 

Rule VI. — A noun or pronoun that limits the mean- 
ing of a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, is sometimes 
used in the objective case without a preposition ex- 
pressed. 

Rule VII. — An appositive or attributive noun or 
pronoun must agree in case with the leading term on 
which it depends. 

Rule VIII. — A pronoun must agree with its antece- 
dent, in gender, person, and number. 

Rule IX. — An article or an adjective belongs to the 
noun or pronoun to which it relates. 

Rule X. — A predicate-verb must agree with its sub- 
ject, in person and number. 

Rule XI, — A participle or an infinitive, with its ad- 
juncts, has the syntax of a dependent clause ; or is 
used in the sense of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. 

Rule XII. — An adverb belongs to the word, phrase, 
or clause, to which it relates. 

Rule XIII. — A preposition shows the relation of an 
object to some other word on which the adjunct de- 
pends. 

Rule XIV. — Conjunctions connect words, phrases, 
clauses, or sentences. 

Rule XV. — An interjection has no grammatical 
connection with other words. 

238 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 



What is a Language? (See page 
57.) What is Grammar (page 57)? 
What is said of English Grammar? 
Into what may language be divided ? 
What three things belong to words ? 
Of what does Pronunciation treat? 
Orthography ? Etymology ? 

What is a Letter ( 56 ) ? How are 
the letters classified? What is a 
vowel ? — a consonant ? For what 
are capital letters used (60) ? Repeat 
the principal rules for using capital 
letters (60-61). What rules are given 
for capitalizing phrases (63)? For 
what are Italics used (65-66) ? 

What is a Syllable (66)? — a 
Word? How are words classified 
(66-67)? What is a monosyllable? 
— a dissyllable ? — a trisyllable ? — a 
polysyllable ? — a primitive word ? — 
a derivative ? — a compound ? What 
is accent (67)? Mention the two 
chief grades of accent? How are 
words divided into syllables (67)? 
When are words compounded (69)? 
When is the hyphen used? — when 
omitted? What is spelling (70)? 
Give the three principal rules (71). 
What is said of equivalents ? — of con- 
traction? — of abbreviation? What 
is a prefix (73)? — a suffix? — a 
root ? What more is said of deriva- 
tion ? 

What is a Figure (75) ? What is 
said of onomatopy ? — metaphor ? — 
allegory ? — personification ? — cat- 
achresis ? — synecdoche ? — metony- 
my ? — euphemism ? — hyperbole ? — 
irony ? What is a simile (219) ? 

What is a Sentence (9 and 79) ? — 
a proposition (13) ? — a phrase ? — a 
clause? — the subject of a sentence 
( 9) ? — the predicate ? Of what does 
Syntax treat (79)? How many and 
what are the parts of speech? Into 
what other kinds of parts are sen- 
tences, divided? 

What is a Noun (79)? — a Pro- 
noun'? — the antecedent of a pro- 
noun ? — a proper noun (80) ? — a 
common noun ? — a collective noun ? 

— an abstract noun ? — a personal 
pronoun ? — a relative pronoun (81) ? 

— an interrogative pronoun ? — an 
adjective pronoun? What properties 



have nouns and pronouns ( 82) ? What 
are genders? how many? and define 
each (. 82). Persons ? — numbers ? — 
cases ? Mention the chief modes of 
forming the plural number (84-85). 
How is the possessive case formed 
(86)? What is declension? Decline 
/; — thou ; — you ; — he; — she ; — it ; 

— who ; — which. What is the general 
meaning of derivative nouns (87)? 

What is meant by the relation of 
words, in sentences (94)? What is 
government, in grammar (95)? — 
agreement ? — pos ition ? In what re- 
lations may a t noun or pronoun be 
used, in sentences (95)? What is a 
Rule, in grammar (95)? Repeat Rule 
L;-II.;-III.;-IV.;_V.;-VI.; 

— VII. ; — VIII. ; — Note I. ; — II. ; — 
III. ; — IV. What antecedents are 
singular (96) ? — plural ? 

Mention the principal marks of 
punctuation, and how they are used 
(97). How are independent words or 
phrases punctuated (98)? — subjects 
and predicates (99)? — appositive 
terms ( 101) ? — phrases used as nouns 
(102)? — clauses used as nouns 
(103)? 

What is Analysis (104)?— Pars- 
ing 1 ? What are elements, in analy- 
sis? What may an element be, in 
its form? — in its relation? What is 
said of sentences and clauses? — of 
subjects and predicates ? How may 
a noun or pronoun be modified (105)? 
How are sentences analyzed (106)? 
How is a noun parsed ? — a pro- 
noun? 

What is Observation 1, under Rule 
II. (111)? — Obs. 2? WhatisObs.l, 
under Rule III. (112)? — Obs. 2? — 
Obs. 3 ? — Obs. 4 ? — Obs. 5 ? — Obs. 
6 ? — Obs. under Rule V. ? General 
remark, under cases (117)? Obs. 1,' 
under Rule VIII.? — Obs. 2? — Obs. 
3?_Obs.4? 

What is an Article (121) ? What 
is said of the ? — of a or an ? 

What is an Adjective (121) ? 
What different ideas are expressed 
by adjectives ? or what do adjectives 
denote? Define the principal kinds 
of adjectives (122). What is com- 
parison ? Define each degree. How 

239 



240 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 



is comparison expressed (123)? Give 
examples of words that can not be 
compared; — of words irregularly 
compared. What meanings have de- 
rivative adjectives (124)? How are 
adjectives used, in syntax (127)? 
Repeat Rule IX. and Note V. What 
rules of punctuation are given for 
series of terms and for adjective ex- 
pressions (128)? How may an ad- 
jective be modified (131)? How is 
an article parsed? — an adjective? 
What five Obs. are given under arti- 
cles (133)? — what six under adjec- 
tives (135)? 

What is a Verb (138)? How 
many and what are the principal 
parts of a verb? How are verbs 
classified ( 139 ) ? Define these classes. 
Give the principal parts of see, go, lie, 
lay, sit, set, seat. What properties 
have verbs (145)? Define voices, 
and then each ; — moods ; — tenses ; — 
styles and forms; — person and num- 
ber (145-152). What is a participle? 
— an infinitive? Define the present 
participle (152); — the present infini- 
tive ; — the perfect participle or in- 
finitive. How may the participles 
be known ( 153 ) ? — the infinitives ? 
What is a complex participle? What 
is the conjugation of a verb (154)? — 
what is a synopsis? How are the 
various parts of the verb obtained 
(155)? Conjugate the verb be (158). 
From what are most derivative verbs 
formed? and what is their general 
meaning (159)? In what relations 
are words attached to verbs (162)? 
Repeat Rule X. What subjects are 
singular ( 163 ) ? — plural ? How may 
a participle or an infinitive be used 
(164)? What do participles and in- 
finitives express? Repeat Rule XI. 
(165). How may a verb be modified 
or enlarged (165)? How are parti- 
cipial or infinitive expressions punc- 
tuated (166)? How is a predicate- 
verb parsed ? — a participle or an in- 
finitive? What Obs. under Rule X. 
(173)? What is Obs. 1, under verbs 
(174) ?_ Obs. 2? — Obs. 3? — Obs. 
4? — Obs. 5? — Obs.6? — Obs.7? — 



Obs. 8 ? — Obs. 9 ? — Obs. 10 ? — Obs. 
11? — Obs.. 12? — Obs. 13? 

What is an Adverb ( 180) ? What 
do adverbs express ? What is an ad- 
verbial phrase? What is a conjunc- 
tive adverb? What is said of the 
comparison of adverbs (181)? Rela- 
tions of adverbs ? How may an ad- 
verb be modified (182)? What Rule 
is given for adverbs? What Notes 
are given? How are adverbial ex- 
pressions punctuated? 

What is a Preposition (183)? 
What do prepositions denote ? What 
is a prepositional phrase? What is 
said of this kind of phrase ? What is 
the Rule for prepositions? How are 
prepositional phrases punctuated 
(184)? Repeat the list of preposi- 
tions. 

What is a Conjunction (186)? 
What do conjunctions denote? How 
are they classified? Define these 
classes. Repeat the Rule for con- 
junctions (187). How are punctuated 
the parts connected by conjunctions ? 
Mention some of the most common 
conjunctions. 

What is an Interjection (189)? 
Give examples. What is the Rule 
for interjections? How are interjec- 
tions punctuated? From what are 
most adverbs formed (190)? What 
is a complex sentence (193)? How 
are adverbs parsed (194) ? — preposi- 
tions ? — conjunctions (195) ? — inter- 
jections ? 

What is Obs. 1, under modifiers? 
— Obs. 2?— Obs. 3? — Obs. 4? — 
Obs. 5? To what four heads may 
all the errors in the use of language 
be reduced (203)? What is the first 
General Rule ? and what are the Ob- 
servations under it? The second? 
and the Observations? The third? 
The fourth ? 

Mention the principal modifica- 
tions of syntax, and define them (216- 
228). What is said of analysis, pars- 
ing, and idioms (230)? What are 
idioms? and how are they best man- 
aged ? Repeat all the Rules of Syn- 
tax (238). 



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